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PubMedDate not supplied

Associations between anthropometric variables and reproductive performance in a Papua New Guinea highland population.

Associations between anthropometric variation and reproductive performance have important ecological and evolutionary implications. Bivariate associations between measures of reproductive performance (live births and offspring still living at the time of interview) and 24 anthropometric variables were examined in 150 females, aged 21-44 years, from the Eastern Highlands district of Papua New Guinea. Where significant linear or curvilinear associations with age existed, the reproductive and anthropometric variables were age-corrected. Linear, quadratic and cubic regressions were computed for each bivariate regression of age-corrected reproductive variable on age-corrected anthropometric trait. Positive linear regressions were found in the cases of body weight, triceps skinfold and head breadth. Positive cubic regressions were found in the cases of upper arm circumference, calf circumference, bicondylar femur and wrist breadth. It is suggested that these associations may reflect important ecological factors which influence both anthropometric and reproductive variation. U-shaped associations were found in the cases of wrist breadth and bicondylar femur. Inverted U-shaped associations were found for stature, sitting height, bizygomatic diameter and morphological face height. These curvilinear associations may be interpreted in terms of natural selection, and suggest that stature and sitting height may be undergoing stabilizing selection in this population.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

Reproductive toxicity screen of trifluoroiodomethane (CF(3)I) in Sprague-Dawley rats.

CF(3)I is being considered by the U.S. Air Force as a replacement for Halon 1301 for fire-extinguishing requirements in unoccupied spaces. The purpose of this study was to determine and evaluate the potential for CF(3)I to produce reproductive toxicity and to provide additional information on the effect of CF(3)I exposure on the thyroid. Groups of 16 male and 16 female rats were exposed (6 h/day) to CF(3)I vapor at concentrations of 0 (control), 0.2, 0.7, and 2.0% using whole-body inhalation chambers. Prior to mating, rats were exposed to CF(3)I for 4 wk (5 days/wk). Exposures were 7 days/wk during the periods of mating (2 wk), gestation (3 wk), and lactation (3 wk). First-generation pups were not exposed to CF(3)I vapor. In parental animals, there were no clinical signs of toxicity except for a minimal decrease in mean body weight in female rats at 2.0% CF(3)I. At necropsy, gross findings, mean serum chemistry levels, mean hematology values, mean bone marrow micronuclei scores, and mean organ weights were similar for all exposure groups, including the air control group. Statistically significant differences did not show a pattern and/or were considered incidental. There were no treatment-related microscopic tissue findings, including the thyroid organ. Analysis of reproductive indices and parameters indicates CF(3)I is not a reproductive toxicant. Results of serum thyroid hormone levels (e.g., T(3), T(4), rT(3), and TSH), showed concentration-related increases in TSH, T(4), and rT(3). T(3) levels were decreased. First-generation pup survival and mean body weights were similar in all exposure groups, including the control. Exposure of 2.0% CF(3)I vapor for approximately 14 wk produced minimal general toxicity and no reproductive toxicity in Sprague-Dawley rats. On the basis of reproductive indices and parameters, the NOAEL for this study is 2.0% CF(3)I.

Animals↗
PubMed1976

Effect on the reproductive functions of female rhesus monkeys of feeding irradiated wheat flour and potato diet.

We investigated the effects on reproductive functions of feeding adult rhesus monkeys on a diet of irradiated wheat flour and potato. Wheat flour and potatoes were exposed to 75000 and 10000 rad, respectively, of gamma-irradiation and then fed to the animals. Various parameters of reproductive function were compared with those of animals fed on unirradiated food. These were: external changes in the reproductive organs, menstrual cycle, vaginal cytology, assay of urinary hormones (oestrogens and pregnanediol), and post-mortem histopathological examination of the reproductive organs. At the end of 3 months, the experimental and control animals behaved similarly with regard to their reproductive functions.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Oxidative DNA damage induced by toluene is involved in its male reproductive toxicity.

Toluene is widely used as an organic solvent in various industries and commercial products. Recent investigations have shown that toluene may induce male reproductive dysfunctions and carcinogenicity. To clarify whether the toxicity results from the interference of endocrine systems or direct damage to reproductive organs, we examined the effects of toluene on the male reproductive system in rats, comparing to those of diethylstilbestrol (DES), a potent synthetic estrogen. Toluene (50, 500 mg/kg) or DES (2 mg/kg) injected subcutaneously to male Sprague-Dawley rats once a day for 10 days decreased the epididymal sperm counts and the serum concentrations of testosterone. The mRNA level for gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor in the pituitary was decreased by DES, but not by toluene. On the contrary, 8-oxo-7,8-dihydro-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-oxodG) formation in testes, the biological marker for oxidative DNA damage, was increased by toluene but not by DES. These results suggest that toluene induces reproductive toxicity via direct oxidative damage of spermatozoa, whereas DES affects endocrine systems via the hypothalamo-pituitary-gonadal axis. Morphological findings supported the idea. To determine the mechanism of 8-oxodG formation in vivo, we examined DNA damage induced by toluene metabolic products in vitro. Minor toluene metabolites, methylhydroquinone and methylcatechols, induced oxidative DNA damage, and the methylcatechols induced NADH-mediated 8-oxodG formation more efficiently than methylhydroquinone did. We propose that oxidative DNA damage in the testis plays a role in reproductive toxicity induced by toluene.

8-Hydroxy-2'-Deoxyguanosine↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Two-generation reproduction study of ammonium perchlorate in drinking water in rats evaluates thyroid toxicity.

Perchlorate is an inorganic ion that has recently been detected in drinking water supplies throughout the country, but little is known about its effects on reproductive function. This two-generation reproductive study examines the effects of ammonium perchlorate on the male and female reproductive systems in rats, and on the growth and development of offspring. Adult Sprague-Dawley rats (30/sex/group) were given continuous access to ammonium perchlorate in their drinking water at doses of 0, 0.3, 3.0, and 30.0 mg/kg-day. F1 generation rats were given the same ammonium perchlorate doses as their respective P1 generation sires and dams beginning at weaning and continuing through the day of sacrifice. Standard reproductive parameters were evaluated; blood was collected for determination of serum thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), triiodothyronine (T3), and thyroxine (T4) levels. Histopathological examination was conducted on major tissues, including the thyroid. No significant changes in developmental parameters were observed. In the F1 generation adult rats, relative thyroid weights were significantly increased in all dose groups for female rats and in the 3.0 and 30.0 mg/kg-day dose groups for male rats. Histopathologic changes in the thyroid consisted of hypertrophy and hyperplasia that increased in incidence and severity in a dose-related manner. Dose-related, statistically significant changes in TSH and T4 or T3 occurred at doses higher than those that resulted in changes in thyroid weight and thyroid histopathology, 30 mg/kg-day. Thus, perchlorate is not a reproductive toxicant in rats when administered in the drinking water at doses up to 30 mg/kg-day, but it can affect the thyroid at doses > or =3 mg/kg-day. Based on these findings, 0.3 mg/kg-day is identified to be the no-observable-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) for this study.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Reproductive and developmental toxicity of arsenic in rodents: a review.

Arsenic is a recognized reproductive toxicant in humans and induces malformations, especially neural tube defects, in laboratory animals. Early studies showed that murine malformations occurred only when a high dose of inorganic arsenic was given by intravenous or intraperitoneal injection in early gestation. Oral gavage of inorganic arsenic at maternally toxic doses caused reduced fetal body weight and increased resorptions. Recently, arsenic reproductive and developmental toxicity has been studied in situations more similar to human exposures and using broader endpoints, such as behavioral changes and gene expression. For the general population, exposure to arsenic is mostly oral, particularly via drinking water, repeated and prolonged over time. In mice and rats, methylated or inorganic arsenic via drinking water or by repeated oral gavage induced male and female reproductive and developmental toxicities. Furthermore, at nonmaternally toxic levels, inorganic arsenic given to pregnant dams via drinking water affected fetal brain development and postnatal behaviors. However, arsenic given by repeated oral gavage to pregnant mice and rats was not morphologically teratogenic. In this review of arsenic reproductive and developmental toxicity in rats and mice, the authors summarize recent in vivo studies and discuss possible underlying mechanisms. The influences of folate, selenium, zinc, and arsenic methylation on arsenic reproductive and developmental toxicity are also discussed.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Multigeneration reproductive and developmental toxicity study of bar gene inserted into genetically modified potato on rats.

Each specific protein has an individual gene encoding it, and a foreign gene introduced to a plant can be used to synthesize a new protein. The identification of potential reproductive and developmental toxicity from novel proteins produced by genetically modified (GM) crops is a difficult task. A science-based risk assessment is needed in order to use GM crops as a conventional foodstuff. In this study, the specific characteristics of GM food and low-level chronic exposure were examined using a five-generation animal study. In each generation, rats were fed a solid pellet containing 5% GM potato and non-GM potato for 10 wk prior to mating in order to assess the potential reproductive and developmental toxic effects. In the multigeneration animal study, there were no GM potato-related changes in body weight, food consumption, reproductive performance, and organ weight. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was carried out using extracted genomic DNA to examine the possibility of gene persistence in the organ tissues after a long-term exposure to low levels of GM feed. In each generation, the gene responsible for bar was not found in any of the reproductive organs of the GM potato-treated male and female rats, and the litter-related indexes did not show any genetically modified organism (GMO)-related changes. The results suggest that genetically modified crops have no adverse effects on the multigeneration reproductive-developmental ability.

Animals↗
PubMed1984

Effect of dog food containing 460 ppm fluoride on rat reproduction.

A one-generation, two-litter rat reproduction study was done in a kennel in Allegan County, Michigan, as part of an investigation of reproductive problems in Shetland sheepdogs (shelties). Since 1970, at least 115 sheltie litters at this kennel have been grossly deformed and/or have died, generally within 3 d of birth. The causative factor(s) appears to be associated with the environment, as the shelties have had successful pregnancies elsewhere. There was some concern that a potential threat to human reproduction also might exist in this area. After it was discovered that fluoride in the dog food had apparently caused mottled teeth and bony exostoses in dogs at this and at least two other kennels, dog-food fluoride content and local well water were investigated as possible causes of the reproductive problems. A two-way factorial statistical design allowed assessment of dietary fluoride content and water source and interaction between the two. UPj:TUC(SD)spf rats, 9 males and 18 females in each group, were assigned to treatment with high-fluoride dog food (460 ppm) and well water; high-fluoride dog food and distilled water; low-fluoride dog food (56 ppm) and well water; and low-fluoride dog food and distilled water. After 60 d in the kennel, the rats were mated. Even after two litters, the only adverse effect was dental fluorosis in the high-fluoride groups. The results indicated that rats cannot be used in the search for the cause(s) of reproductive problems in dogs in this kennel.

Abnormalities, Drug-Induced↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Reproductive and socioeconomic determinants of child survival: confounded, interactive, and age-dependent effects.

Studies of infant and child mortality have evolved to distinguish between two sets of explanatory variables-factors related to reproductive or maternal characteristics and socioeconomic factors, generally described as characteristics of the family or household. Almost all multivariate analyses include variables from each of these two sets, but there has been little consideration of the relationship between them. We examine how these two sets of variables jointly affect mortality. We test first for confounded effects by examining socioeconomic effects while excluding and then including reproductive variables in nested multivariate models. Next, we look for age-dependent effects among the explanatory variables and find that reproductive and socioeconomic factors affect mortality at differing ages of children. Finally, we examine interactive effects of the two sets of variables. We conclude that the higher mortality observed among the low status groups is not a result of greater concentration of poor reproductive patterns in those groups. Instead, higher status groups probably have more resources available for combating the negative effects of the same high-risk reproductive patterns.

Age Factors↗
PubMed2000

Inhalation developmental toxicity and reproduction studies with cyclohexane.

The reproductive and developmental toxicity of cyclohexane was assessed in a two-generation reproduction study with Crl:CD BR rats and in developmental toxicity studies with Crl:CD BR rats and Hra:(NZW)SPF rabbits. The animals were exposed whole-body to atmospheric concentrations of 0, 500, 2000, or 7000 ppm cyclohexane. In the two-generation reproduction study, parental effects included statistically significantly lower mean body weight, overall mean body weight gain, and overall mean food efficiency for P1 and F1 females of the 7000 ppm level and statistically significantly lower mean body weight for F1 males of that level. Adult rats exposed to 2000 ppm cyclohexane and above exhibited a transient diminished or absent response to a sound stimulus while in the chambers during exposure. Mean pup weight was statistically significantly lower than control from lactation day 7 throughout the remainder of the 25-day lactation period for both F1 and F2 7000 ppm litters. Changes observed at 500 ppm were either considered not to be compound related or not adverse. Therefore, the systemic-toxicity no-observed-effect level (NOEL) was 500 ppm and the reproductive NOEL was 2000 ppm. The reproductive NOEL was based solely on the decreased pup weights in both the F1 and F2 generations observed at 7000 ppm. In the developmental toxicity studies, only the rats showed evidence of maternal toxicity. For rats in the 7000 ppm group, statistically significant reductions were observed in overall maternal body weight gain and overall maternal food consumption for the treatment period. Rats exposed to 2000 ppm cyclohexane and above again exhibited a transient diminished or absent response to a sound stimulus while in the chambers during exposure. Therefore, for rats, the maternal no-observed-effect level (NOEL) was 500 ppm. In the rabbit developmental toxicity study, no compound-related maternal effects were observed at concentration levels of 7000 ppm and below. Therefore, the maternal NOEL for rabbits was 7000 ppm. No compound-related evidence of developmental toxicity was observed at any test concentration in either species. Therefore, the developmental NOEL for both species was 7000 ppm, the highest concentration tested.

Acoustic Stimulation↗
PubMed1998

The coordination of centrosome reproduction with nuclear events of the cell cycle in the sea urchin zygote.

Centrosomes repeatedly reproduce in sea urchin zygotes arrested in S phase, whether cyclin-dependent kinase 1-cyclin B (Cdk1-B) activity remains at prefertilization levels or rises to mitotic values. In contrast, when zygotes are arrested in mitosis using cyclin B Delta-90, anaphase occurs at the normal time, yet centrosomes do not reproduce. Together, these results reveal the cell cycle stage specificity for centrosome reproduction and demonstrate that neither the level nor the cycling of Cdk1-B activity coordinate centrosome reproduction with nuclear events. In addition, the proteolytic events of the metaphase-anaphase transition do not control when centrosomes duplicate. When we block protein synthesis at first prophase, the zygotes divide and arrest before second S phase. Both blastomeres contain just two complete centrosomes, which indicates that the cytoplasmic conditions between mitosis and S phase support centrosome reproduction. However, the fact that these daughter centrosomes do not reproduce again under such supportive conditions suggests that they are lacking a component required for reproduction. The repeated reproduction of centrosomes during S phase arrest points to the existence of a necessary "licensing" event that restores this component to daughter centrosomes during S phase, preparing them to reproduce in the next cell cycle.

Anaphase↗
PubMed1982

Dominance rank, copulatory behavior, and differential reproduction.

The view that high social rank is associated with high levels of both copulatory behavior and the production of offspring is widespread in the study of animal behavior. In order to demonstrate the validity of this hypothesis it is necessary first to resolve ambiguities in the concept of dominance and to assign ranks by means of valid procedures. Second, copulatory behavior must be properly sampled, measured, and related to rank. Finally, it must be demonstrated that rank and increased copulatory behavior actually lead to increased reproduction. Each step in this process entails conceptual and methodological difficulties. There have been many studies of rank and copulatory behavior, fewer of rank and differential reproduction, and very few of rank, copulatory behavior, and differential reproduction. The consistency of results obtained varies with taxon; results of particular consistency appear in studies of carnivores and ungulates. Both the concept of dominance and the validity of the hypothesis relating it to copulatory behavior and to differential reproduction appear viable for at least some species, although the body of data relating rank to both copulation and differential reproduction remains minimal.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Genetic correlations with floral display lead to sexual dimorphism in the cost of reproduction.

In dioecious plants, females typically invest more biomass in reproduction than males and consequently experience stronger life-history trade-offs. Sexual dimorphism in life history runs counter to this pattern in Silene latifolia: females acquire less carbon and invest more biomass in reproduction, but males pay a higher cost of reproduction. The species is sexually dimorphic for many traits, especially flower number, with males producing many, small flowers compared to females. We tested whether the cost of reproduction is higher in males because flower number, which we presume to be under sexual selection in males, is genetically correlated with traits that would affect life-history trade-offs. We performed artificial selection to reduce the sexual dimorphism in flower size and looked at correlated responses in ecophysiological traits. We found significant correlated responses in total vegetative mass, leaf mass, leaf thickness, and measures of CO(2) exchange. Individuals in the many-and-small-flowered selection lines did not grow as large or invest as much biomass in leaves, and their leaves exhibited an up-regulated physiology that shortened leaf life span. Our results are consistent with the hypothesis that genetic correlations between floral display and ecophysiological traits lead to a higher cost of reproduction for males.

Biomass↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Corticosterone, reproductive status, and body mass in a cooperative breeder, the Florida scrub-jay (Aphelocoma coerulescens).

In the cooperatively breeding Florida scrub-jay, nonbreeders are subordinate to the breeders with which they share a territory. Corticosterone is secreted in response to a wide range of stressors, including social stress, and suppresses reproductive and territorial behaviors in several taxa; thus, elevated baseline levels of corticosterone might be a causal mechanism of reproductive suppression. To test the hypothesis that nonbreeder Florida scrub-jays are reproductively suppressed through the actions of corticosterone, we compared corticosterone levels of nonbreeders and breeders and found no differences. However, baseline corticosterone levels only provide information about a bird's current hormonal status. Virtually all species exhibit a rapid rise in glucocorticoids in response to an acute stressor. If the adrenocortical response of nonbreeders is greater than that of breeders, this might be a mechanism whereby nonbreeders remain reproductively quiescent. We compared the responses of breeders and nonbreeders to the acute stress of being captured and held for 1 h. Both exhibited significant but equivalent increases in corticosterone titers. Because in some species heavier or fatter individuals have reduced glucocorticoid responses to stressors, we examined whether body mass was correlated with corticosterone titers. Both baseline and maximum corticosterone levels covaried with body mass, and the effect of body mass on corticosterone levels explained the increase due to capture and handling. Our data do not support the hypothesis that Florida scrub-jay nonbreeders are reproductively suppressed through the actions of corticosterone.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed2003

Sexual differences in reproductive phenology and their consequences for the demography of Baccharis dracunculifolia (Asteraceae), a dioecious tropical shrub.

Patterns of phenological variation and reproductive investment were studied in the dioecious shrub Baccharis dracunculifolia DC (Asteraceae), and possible consequences on survivorship were evaluated. The sex ratio was determined in a natural field population (n = 921) of B. dracunculifolia in Belo Horizonte, Brazil. Fifty-two males and 56 females were sampled at random from this population. During the reproductive season of 1999, inflorescence production, shoot growth and mortality, and xylem water potential were recorded for each individual. The population sex ratio was male-biased (1.27 : 1, P < 0.05), and was associated with a higher mortality of female shoots (38.4 vs. 23.1 %, P < 0.05), and individuals (17.8 vs. 11.5 %, P < 0.1), despite lower water stress in female plants. Flowering phenology also differed between the sexes, with males producing more inflorescences, and earlier, than females. Owing to fruit maturation, the number of inflorescences supported by females was higher than that supported by males later in the reproductive season. This occurred during the dry season, and drought stress may have been responsible for the greater female mortality. Thus, the male-biased sex ratio in this population of B. dracunculifolia is probably due to different reproductive functions of males and females. Intersexual differences in reproductive phenology had consequences for plant demography.

Baccharis↗
PubMed2003

Pseudoviviparous reproduction of Poa alpina var. vivipara L. (Poaceae) during long-term exposure to elevated atmospheric CO2.

Pseudovivipary is an asexual reproductive strategy exhibited by some arctic/alpine grasses in which leafy plantlets are produced in place of seeds, with genetic conservation an advantage for stress tolerators in these nutrient-poor habitats. Photosynthetic metabolism and the development of this reproductive system were investigated under varying nutrient availability and predicted future CO(2) partial pressure (pCO(2)). Poa alpina var. vivipara L., grown at present ambient pCO(2) or ambient plus 340 micro mol mol(-1) CO(2) (elevated pCO(2)), was supplied with either 0.05 mol m(-3) phosphorus and 0.2 mol m(-3) nitrogen, or 0.2 mol m(-3) phosphorus and 1.0 mol m(-3) nitrogen. Gas exchange measurements and determination of total non-structural carbohydrate (TNC), nitrogen and phosphorus contents revealed that parent plant leaf blade tissues experienced acclimatory loss of photosynthetic capacity after long-term growth at elevated pCO(2) (particularly so when nutrient availability was low); there were associated reductions in photosynthetic nitrogen and phosphorus use efficiencies (PNUE and PPUE). In addition, decreased PNUE and PPUE were exhibited by plantlets grown at elevated pCO(2) with low nutrient availability. Decreased reproductive dry matter in this treatment also resulted from a lack of reproductive initiation in daughter tillers, and altered phenology. Pseudoviviparous P. alpina is likely to be at a disadvantage in both vegetative and reproductive phases at predicted future elevated atmospheric CO(2) concentrations, particularly where nutrients are scarce and when in competition with species experiencing less acclimatory loss of photosynthetic capacity.

Acclimatization↗
PubMed2005

Photosynthesis in relation to reproductive success of Cypripedium flavum.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Cypripedium flavum is a rare, endemic alpine slipper orchid of China, which is under threat from excessive collection and habitat changes. Conservation and re-introduction of C. flavum is restricted by lack of knowledge of the plant's photosynthesis and how that affects reproductive success. The hypothesis is tested that reproductive success is determined by photosynthetic production. * METHODS: To understand the photosynthetic characteristics and adaptation of C. flavum to alpine environments, and the relation to reproductive success, measurements were made at four field sites with varying degrees of forest cover in the Hengduan Mountains, south-west China. * KEY RESULTS: Both photosynthetic capacity and reproductive traits of C. flavum are affected by light availability. Photosynthetic rate (A) is greatest around noon, following the pattern of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) at all sites. Cypripedium flavum has highest daily mean photosynthetic rate (A(daily)) and light-saturated photosynthetic rate (A(max)) under a half to a third of full sunlight. High radiation decreased A. However, the optimum temperature for photosynthesis was similar (18-20 degrees C) at all sites. * CONCLUSIONS: The quotient of daily mean photosynthetic rate to light saturated photosynthesis (A(daily)/A(max)) is positively correlated with the ramet number m(-2) and percentage of fruiting of C. flavum. The A(daily)/A(max) ratio is a useful proxy for evaluating reproductive success of C. flavum.

Carbon Dioxide↗
PubMed2006

Seasonal timing of pseudoviviparous reproduction of Leiothrix (Eriocaulaceae) rupestrian species in South-eastern Brazil.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Pseudovivipary is an asexual reproductive strategy. Leiothrix spiralis and L. vivipara (Eriocaulaceae) are pseudoviviparous and occur in rupestrian grasslands, a habitat that has a predominance of sandy and shallow soil, with low water retention. This study aims to investigate the seasonal variation effect of moisture availability on L. spiralis and L. vivipara pseudoviviparous reproduction, and to compare their life history attributes, on rupestrian grasslands in Southeastern Brazil. METHODS: A field study was conducted, including observations concerning pseudoviviparous reproduction and measurement of demographic variables in both L. spiralis and L. vivipara. Soil moisture measurements were also performed to study its effect on the pseudoviviparous reproduction of L. spiralis and L. vivipara. KEY RESULTS: Flower head and plantlet production in L. spiralis were highly correlated with soil moisture. All scapes split off in the drier period, indicating that this is a splitter ramet species. Plantlet mortality was positively correlated with scapes splitting off. The L. vivipara phenophases were not synchronized to the variation in soil moisture, since flower heads and plantlets were produced throughout the year. Moreover, the splitting off of scapes was not observed. In addition, plantlets were formed early, as soon as the flower heads appeared, and remained suspended. Therefore, this species was called 'canopy forming'. CONCLUSIONS: Seasonal timing of pseudoviviparous reproduction can be a vital component of the successful establishment of plantlets in L. spiralis, considering that in this species the plantlets are formed only after the flower head touches the ground. In contrast, in L. vivipara, the plantlets are formed early, without touching the ground. Moreover, L. spiralis is a splitter ramet species, while L. vivipara is a canopy-forming species. The pseudoviviparous canopy-forming strategy appears to be more advantageous than the splitter ramet strategy, because even under similar soil moisture conditions, the survival of L. vivipara plantlets was greater than that of L. spiralis.

Brazil↗