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Referring to an 1865 edition of the Bible, the article deals with domestic animals and veterinary matters in the sacred book of Christianity, singling out donkey, camel, horse, sheep, goat, pig, dog and cat. Comments on early aspects of animal welfare and food hygiene round off the picture.
GP scepticism about demand management has been successfully tackled by a co-operative venture involving GPs and a primary care trust. Using the choose and book system to manage referrals makes it easy for data to be collected and analysed.
The writer physicians of Islamic medicine have given top priority to the Islamic Medical Ethics in their valuable writings and left the ineffaceable footsteps in the field. Such as, Abul Hasan Ahmed bin Mohammad At-Tabari has devoted the 35th chapter of Maqala l of his precious book entitled 'Moalejat-e-Buqratiya' to medical ethics. The entire chapter reflects the Islamic approach of the scholar. In the following pages, an attempt has been made to highlight some salient features of Islamic Medical Ethics in ancient literature of Islamic Medical with special reference to Moalejat-e-Buqratiya.
PURPOSE: To identify major problems that obscure understanding of quality of life; to differentiate quality of life from other closely related concepts, and to offer a definition of quality of life. Quality of life is a term frequently used, but seldom defined, in nursing research. Multiple interpretations and measures make evaluating research difficult. The need to clarify concepts, develop nursing theory, and enhance communication is significant. Concept clarification is also essential for research instrument development and evaluation. ORGANIZING CONSTRUCT AND SCOPE: Concept analysis as proposed by Walker and Avant. Preconceived theories were avoided to keep the analysis as unbiased as possible. The analyst considered many descriptions of quality of life, but eventually included only those in the scientific literature. SOURCES: CINAHL, Medline, Psych-Info, ERIC, Social Science Abstracts, and reference lists from published articles in nursing, medicine, psychology, and sociology were used. Twenty-seven theory-based articles and book chapters published since 1989 and a convenience sample of 88 research articles published in 1997 were used. This sample was selected from 16,480 articles published 1993 to 1998. METHODS: Concept clarification comparisons to identify the major attributes of several closely related concepts, including well-being, satisfaction with life, and functional status. Major attributes were validated by a panel of cohorts who met weekly for five consecutive weeks for the purpose of analyzing various concepts. FINDINGS: Quality of life is comprised of subjective indicators such as well-being and satisfaction with life and objective indicators, such as functional status. Continued dialog and research is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of health and quality of life. CONCLUSIONS: A model showing the relationships among quality of life, well-being, functional status, and satisfaction with life is provided and a definition of quality of life is offered. Researchers and authors should include the definition of quality of life used in their work. Instruments should reflect the theoretic definition used. Care should be taken to clarify if functional status, well-being, satisfaction with life are the concepts under consideration as reflecting a part of overall quality of life.
The Information Dissemination Service at the Health Sciences Library, State University of New York at Buffalo, was established June 1970 through a three-year grant from the Lakes Area Regional Medical Program, Inc. Analysis of two samples of user request forms yielded results which significantly substantiate findings in prior biomedical literature utilization studies. The findings demonstrate comparable utilization patterns by user group, age of material, journal titles, language, time to process request, source of reference, and size of institution.
Rudolf Virchow was born in Pomerania in 1821 in Prussia/Germany. His father was a cashier. He started his medical studies in 1839 and finished them in 1843. He became one of the most famous physicians of the 19th century, as he founded the "Cellular pathology" theory. This claims that disease and pathological change start in the cell and nowhere else. The ruling medical dogma at that time the "humoral pathology" stated that "body fluids" were in inbalance when a person got sick. Virchow's studies cleaned this out and the hallmark of the "cellular pathology" sounded "omnis cellula e cellula" ("behind every cell there is another cell"). Virchow was a Professor of Anathomy, Pathology and Physiology and was about the first medical doctor to introduce leukemia, embolus, trombosis and cancerous lymphoid glands into our vocabulary. He worked most of his time in Berlin. He was also a famous and powerful politician throughout his entire life, fighting for political rights, universal suffrage, economic reforms and loosening of the grip of the church. He was also struggling for peace and international understanding. Moreover he was engaged in Anthropology and active as an Archeologist-Historian. He was married and had 6 children. Rudolf Virchow is one of the most famous scientist of the nineteenth-century, referred to as a person of most authority by, among others, Darwin and Nietsche. He was the writer of numerous medical books, the founder of medical journals and the leader of several scientifical organizations. He died in 1902 in Berlin in the aftermath of a tramway-accident when he was on his way to an archeological scientific meeting, at 81 years of age.
Beginnings of the study of Western sciences, "Rangaku," in Kyoto and Osaka in the late 18th century are reviewed. Profiles and achievements of several active learners are briefly described; they include Koishi Genzui (Osaka-Kyoto), Tsuji Ranshitsu (Kyoto), Kimura Kenkadō (Osaka), and Hashimoto Sōkichi (Osaka). Genzui, after having successfully made good relations with Sugita Genpaku and Ohtsuki Gentaku, leading masters of the Edo school, played a role of an advocator for promoting "Rangaku" in Osaka and Kyoto. As a result, Kenkadō attained the publication of his book "Ikkaku Sankō," a monograph of the Western crude drug unicorn, with the help of Gentaku, who had translated a Dutch reference into Japanese for him. Ranshitsu and Sōkichi were taught the Dutch language by Gentaku; Sōkichi is known as the founder of "Rangaku" in Osaka.
OBJECTIVE: The goal of this review is to summarize the current knowledge about the transfer of immunoglobulins from the mother to the fetus. Data obtained experimentally and clinically will be discussed, and intervention trials and options will be examined. DATA SOURCE: References are limited to the English language and to human data. Sources include computerized databases and bibliographies of recent articles and books. RESULTS: Electronmicroscopic studies have unveiled the passage route of IgG through the placenta. The placental in vitro perfusion system has become a valuable experimental model, with a crucial role in the preclinical evaluation of trials to manipulate the maternal-fetal passage of immunoglobulins. CONCLUSIONS: Immunoglobulins are transferred through the placenta in an active, selective and affinity-restricted process, which is Fc-gamma receptor mediated and intracellular. Much work is still required to improve our ability to control the rate and the efficiency of this process, but the results of pioneering attempts have been encouraging.
The quality criteria of biomedical journals--and of 'Magnesium Research' as such--are being given a new insight. This has practical implications for the contributors and the editors. General considerations on the patterns of evaluation of scientific papers highlight five types of errors, that may be incurred in submitted manuscripts. 1. The information conveyed may remain ambiguous: for example, lack of discrimination between acute and chronic patterns, or confusion between the clinical and toxicological consequences of pharmacological and physiological studies: for example it is a real scientific fraud to identify the absent toxic effects of physiological magnesium supplementation with those of high pharmacological magnesium doses ... which in fact may induce toxicity. There should be no confusion between in vitro and in vivo data, with a good understanding of the systemic neuroendocrine metabolic and renal regulations and of the multiple local targets concerned. It is always important to discriminate between the two types of deficit: deficiency due to insufficient intake which merely requires oral physiological supplements and depletion related to a dysregulation which requires more or less specific correction of its causal dysregulation. 2. Insufficient information retrieval, frequently with consultation of one data-base only. Because of indexing omissions and word usage idiosyncrasies, no literature search can retrieve all papers. Monographs and books of proceedings are rarely mentioned in databases and therefore escape consultation. It is obvious, besides, that some of the quoted references have sometimes not been read, but only the title (and in the best cases also the abstract), occasionally with the remaining misprints. A good specific and general knowledge of the background of the study is necessary. 3. Basic methodological errors. Coexistence does not mean causality. Analogous patterns do not demonstrate an identical aetiopathogenesis. The complexity of biology must not be disregarded just because the present trend focuses on one aspect of knowledge at the expense of many others. 4. Thought processes must be unbiased. Citation of supportive papers to the prejudice of unsupportive papers constitutes a real ethical fraud. It seems also very important to submit for publication papers with negative results as well as ones with positive results. In studies on pharmacological indications for magnesium, choice of the magnesium salt used ought to be justified and the efficiency must be evaluated vs reference treatment. 5. Observance of the formal regulations is frequently neglected, in the presentation of manuscripts particularly. Some guidelines should therefore be added to the directions to contributors. Before establishing valuable protocols and in order to write up well structured introductions, discussions and conclusions, the authors should have a comprehensive view of their subjects, that is to say an overall knowledge of the previous general and specific publications related to the topic which must be read. Title, conclusions and abstract ought to be taken into account in the discussion. References should be duly consulted or mentioned as 'cited in'. There should be strict observance of the presentation of the manuscripts according to the directions to contributors. Studies resulting in negative results should not be disregarded. Reciprocally, the editorial policy requires that editors and referees ought to be strict as regards the quality criteria. Although editors and peer reviewers are in no position to detect basic fraud they can, however, highlight errors, whether due to simple oversight or to more subtle ethical or scientific pseudo-frauds. Both conclusive and inconcern papers may deserve publication: positive and negative results equally concern public health. To conclude, the editorial board must be ready to reject dubious manuscripts but must at the same time keep their minds open to consider in a positive l
Su wen shi yi (Annotated Plain Questions), compiled by Zhang Qi in the 9th year of Daoguang reign, was an important revised edition of Su wen (Plain Questions) which has over 570 entries of revised texts. Among them, about a half was inferred proofreadings which is a unique point of this book. This is closely related to the prevalence of scholastic atmosphere of textual research at that time. During his inferred proofreading, Zhang checked the original texts of Plain Questions and Wang Bing's texts as well. The exact method for his inferred proofreading included checking based on the original texts, checking based on medical doctrines, and combined method of both. The inferred proofreading method is of high reference value, exerting certain influence on the studies of Nei jing (Inner Canon) both domestically and abroad.
The United States Pharmacopeia (USP) is a private standards-setting body created in 1820 by practitioners who wished to promote the quality of therapeutic products in commerce. The principal product of USP, then and now, is the United StatesPharmacopeia (USP), to which was added the National Formulary (NF) in 1975. The two compendia are published as a combined text annually (USP-NF). Originally a book of process standards, USP-NF evolved over time into compendia containing primarily product standards that are expressed in monographs for therapeutic ingredients, products, and excipients. As a public health service, USP supplies official USP Reference Standards to manufacturers and others who wish to test an article according to selected procedures of a monograph or General Chapter. During the past decade, understanding of USP monographs and official USP Reference Standards as a means of controlling the quality of a therapeutic article has evolved, based on advances in metrology, on activities in the International Conference on Harmonization of Technical Requirements for the Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use (ICH), and on considerations by the USP Council of Experts and its Expert Committees and USP staff. This article discusses the evolution of this understanding, focusing on drug substances and excipients for well-characterized small molecules and their corresponding dosage forms.
Since nutrition education is a topic to be introduced into primary teaching this study examines the contents of primary school books of the cantons of Basle and Berne regarding this matter. Direct nutrition education, knowledge on nutrition presented and indirect images of nutritional behaviour as given in the books are analysed. Only few direct contents concerning nutrition education were found and these were not in line with updated theories. Knowledge on food and nutrition is fragmentary (e.g. when the path of a food item into a meal ought to be described). The indirect message is transmitting a traditional, uncritical view, and supportive of sweet consumption. Findings show an urgent need for adaption of primary school books on modern nutritional knowledge.
BACKGROUND: Historical vignettes are often included in scientific otological articles. However, they may contain inaccuracies and errors when authors use secondary or compiled texts rather than primary source material. METHODS: Examples of errors arising from the use of secondary sources are obtained from compiled works in comparison with original publications, with a particular focus on Hildanus' speculum. RESULTS: Different types of inaccuracies may be found in historical vignettes. In Hildanus' works, two different specula are depicted: one was described by himself during his lifetime, and the other after his death, probably by his publisher. Only the posthumous description of Hildanus' speculum has been retained historically, but it is uncertain that it was really developed by Hildanus himself. Other such inaccuracies exist because of confusion with the original terminology of referring to an instrument, such as the otoscopes of Toynbee and Brunton, inaccuracies in dates, misinterpretation of the original text, such as the attribution to Charcot as the first to propose the intracranial division of the eighth nerve in Menière's disease, and problems of translation (e.g., the different translations of the book titled Diseases of the Ear by Wilhelm Kramer). CONCLUSION: These different examples of inaccuracies show the common problems encountered in writing a historical report. Authors must be aware of such errors and work almost exclusively with original references. Secondary and compiled references should be reserved for a background of discussion and not as a source of direct support.
OBJECTIVE: In most prenatal settings, twin pregnancies are initially evaluated by sonographers. Pregnancies diagnosed as monochorionic are subsequently referred to perinatologists or specialists in fetal medicine for the confirmation of chorionicity. In order to assess this screening strategy, we have compared the diagnosis of chorionicity made by the sonographers in the ultrasound department with the diagnosis done in the fetal medicine unit. METHODS: A cohort of women presenting with twin pregnancy and booked for prenatal care at University College London Hospitals over a 4-year period were investigated prospectively. All women were scanned at their initial visit at 11-14 weeks in the ultrasound department (US), and were subsequently referred to the Fetal Medicine Unit (FMU) for a second ultrasound evaluation. Ultrasound data were compared and diagnosis of chorionicity was confirmed by examination of the inter-twin membranes after delivery. RESULTS: Chorionicity was determined in 172 twin cases by the two different departments. The overall rate of concordant chorionicity determination between both units was 90.1%. The rate of discordant results in dichorionic pregnancies was extremely small, 1 in 119 pregnancies (0.8%). The rate of discordant results for monochorionic diamniotic pregnancies was 5.5%. Monoamniotic pregnancies were over-diagnosed by the US technicians. DISCUSSION: These results demonstrate that DC/DA chorionicity is accurately determined by sonographers at less than 14 weeks. In our opinion, it is both efficient and safe to rely on the diagnosis of the sonographers in DC/DA pregnancies in early pregnancy. In such pregnancies, a decision can be made either not to refer these patients for further evaluation of chorionicity by the fetal medicine team or to postpone the referral to after 14 weeks.
In three experiments, we examined the effects of locomotion and incidental learning on the formation of spatial memories. Participants learned the locations of objects in a room and then made judgments of relative direction, using their memories (e.g., "Imagine you are standing at the clock, facing the jar. Point to the book"). The experiments manipulated the number of headings experienced, the amount of interaction with the objects, and whether the participants were informed that their memories of the layout would be tested. When participants were required to maintain a constant body orientation during learning (Experiment 1), they represented the layout in terms of a single reference direction parallel to that orientation. When they were allowed to move freely in the room (Experiment 2), they seemed to use two orthogonal reference axes aligned with the walls of the enclosing room. Extensive movement under incidental learning conditions (Experiment 3) yielded a mixture of these two encoding strategies across participants. There was no evidence that locomotion, interaction with objects, or incidental learning led to the formation of spatial memories that differed from those formed from static viewing.
A randomised trial was carried out to assess the effect of a Down syndrome screening video on test uptake, knowledge and psychological stress. A total of 2000 women referred for antenatal care were allocated to two equal groups: one to be sent a video to their home, before their hospital booking visit, and a control group. All women also received screening information in the form of a leaflet before booking and from a midwife at booking. The video had no effect on the screening uptake rate: 638/993 (64.2%) and 652/1007 (64.7%) in the video and control groups, respectively. Women were requested to return the video for reuse in other pregnancies and 612 (62%) did so. A subset of 1200 women were selected to be posted at 17-19 weeks' gestation a self-completed questionnaire to assess the psychological endpoints. Knowledge of screening was increased in the video group with a mean score of 7.3 compared with 6.7 in the controls, a statistically significant difference (t=3.24, p=0.0005). There were no significant differences between the groups in specific worries about abnormalities in the baby, and general anxiety. We conclude that a video can increase knowledge without affecting the uptake of the test, or psychological stress.
A suite of programs has been implemented to facilitate the storage and retrieval of references to published works in a typical scientific research establishment. The retrieval process is governed by searches for specified combinations of keywords, author names, individual references, and lengths of time that references have been held on file. The system currently caters for approximately 1290 journals together with abstracts, reports, supplements, symposia, proceedings and books. Five years experience has proved the system to be reliable and effective, and it requires only 1.5 technician-days per week to operate it and to input about 25 000 articles annually. This system fulfills a requirement felt by many specialised institutions in providing localised control over quantities of information which are too large to be processed manually.
"This article reviews some recent key books on HIV/AIDS in Africa. It does so by examining the debates relating to the extent and possible future development of HIV/AIDS referring to the discussions about demographic, economic and social impacts in especially eastern and southern Africa. It explores the so-called doomsday scenarios and addresses themes linked to the important and increasing attention being paid to the gendered aspects of HIV/AIDS."