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PubMed2004

Patterns of neural activation associated with exposure to odors from a familiar winner in male golden hamsters.

The neural mechanisms underlying recognition of familiar individuals and responses appropriate to them are not well known. Previous studies with male golden hamsters have shown that, after a series of brief aggressive encounters, a loser selectively avoids his own, familiar winner but does not avoid other males. Using this paradigm, we investigated activity in 20 areas of the brain using immunohistochemistry for c-Fos and Egr-1 during exposure to a familiar winner compared to control groups not exposed to another male. Behavioral data showed that 1 day after fights males that lost avoided the familiar winner, suggesting that they recognized this individual. The c-Fos and Egr-1 immunohistochemistry showed that the losers exposed to familiar winners had a greater density of stained cells in the basolateral amygdala, the CA1 region of anterior dorsal hippocampus and the dorsal subiculum than control groups had in these areas. These results suggest that these brain areas may be involved in the memory for other males, the learned fear of familiar winners, or related processes.

Amygdala↗
PubMed2003

Power moves: complementarity in dominant and submissive nonverbal behavior.

Two studies examine complementarity (vs. mimicry) of dominant and submissive nonverbal behaviors. In the first study, participants interacted with a confederate who displayed either dominance (through postural expansion) or submission (through postural constriction). On average, participants exposed to a dominant confederate decreased their postural stance, whereas participants exposed to a submissive confederate increased their stance. Further, participants with complementing responses (dominance in response to submission and submission in response to dominance) liked their partner more and were more comfortable than those who mimicked. In the second study, complementarity and mimicry were manipulated, and complementarity resulted in more liking and comfort than mimicry. The findings speak to the likelihood of hierarchical differentiation.

Adult↗
PubMed1996

Space and density effects on group size preferences in laying hens.

1. T-maze preference tests were used to study group size and space preferences in laying hens kept on deep litter. The first experiment revealed a non-significant tendency to prefer a larger group (120 hens) in a large space (9 m2) over a smaller group (5 hens) in a small space (1 m3), but when the space was constant and large, a strong preference for the smaller group in a large space emerged. 2. In experiment 2, 5 different group size/space options were tested using a T-maze and test hens were non-randomly selected, choosing more aggressive "peckers' and more subordinate "receivers'. Chi-squared tests showed preferences for (1) a larger group (70 over 4 or 0 hens), (2) a larger space (9 m2 over 1 m2) and (3) 4 hens rather than an empty space. Although both peckers and receivers preferred the same size companion hen groups, receivers were more consistent in their choice than peckers. 3. The results have important implications for hens in all group size and suggest that while smaller group sizes may be important, they need to be combined with sufficient space. Furthermore, the "ideal group size' may differ depending on the individual hen's dominance status.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed1997

Victimized children's responses to peers' aggression: behaviors associated with reduced versus continued victimization.

The aim of the current investigation was to identify victimized children's responses to peers' aggression that may be associated with reduced versus persistent victimization. To address this aim, 199 5-6-year-old children (96 boys, 103 girls) were interviewed twice during kindergarten (fall and spring) about their own victimization experiences and peers' responses to aggression. Observational rating of children's victimization experiences were used to examine the validity of the self-reported victimization scores. Relations between response strategies and subsequent victimization status were significant only for boys: "having a friend help" was associated with reduced victimization, whereas "fighting back" was related to stable victimization. Implications for future research on peer victimization and intervention with young victimized children are discussed.

Aggression↗
PubMed2005

Females competing to reproduce: dominance matters but testosterone may not.

The associations among aggression, testosterone (T), and reproductive success have been well studied, particularly in male birds. In many species, males challenged with simulated or real territorial intrusions increase T and levels of aggression, outcomes linked to higher dominance status and greater reproductive success. For females, the patterns are less clear. Females behave aggressively towards one another, and in some species, females respond to a social challenge with increases in T, but in other species they do not. Prior work on female dark-eyed juncos (Junco hyemalis) had shown that experimental elevation of T increases social status and intrasexual aggression. Here, we conducted two experiments designed to answer three questions: Are endogenous concentrations of T associated with dominance status in captive female juncos? Does dominance status influence readiness to breed in female juncos? And do captive females increase T in response to a challenge? In the first experiment, we introduced two females to a breeding aviary, allowed them to form a dominance relationship and then introduced a male. We found that dominant females were more likely to breed than subordinates, but that dominance status was not predicted by circulating T. In the second experiment, we allowed a resident male and female to establish ownership of a breeding aviary (territory) then introduced a second, intruder female. We found that resident females were aggressive towards and dominant over intruders, but T did not increase during aggressive interactions. We suggest that during the breeding season, intrasexual aggression between females may influence reproductive success, but not be dependent upon fluctuations in T. Selection may have favored independence of aggression from T because high concentrations of T could interfere with normal ovulation or produce detrimental maternal effects.

Aggression↗
PubMed1987

Story grammar ability in children with and without language disorder: story generation, story retelling, and story comprehension.

Twenty language-impaired and unimpaired children ages 9:0 to 11:4 participated in three story tasks. The children generated three original stories, retold two adventure stories, and then answered two sets of comprehension questions after each retelling. Stein and Glenn's (1979) story grammar rules were adapted and used to analyze the narratives. The generated and retold stories produced by the language-disordered children contained fewer complete story episodes, a lower mean number of main and subordinate clauses per complete episode, and a lower frequency of use of story grammar components than those of the control group. The story hierarchies produced by both groups were highly similar, though, in both story generation and story retelling. The groups also did not differ in their understanding of the factual details of the retold stories, but did differ significantly in their comprehension of the relationships linking the critical parts of the stories together. The results are discussed relative to cognitive organizational deficits of language-impaired children.

Attention↗
PubMed2003

Reproductive skew and the origin of sterile castes.

Reproductive skew theory has not heretofore formally addressed one of the most important questions in evolutionary biology: How can whole-life sterile castes evolve? We construct a transactional skew model investigating under what conditions a subordinate in a multimember group is favored to develop into a morphologically specialized worker caste. Our model demonstrates that, contrary to former expectations, the ecological and genetic conditions favoring caste differentiation are far more restrictive than those favoring high skew. Caste differentiation cannot be selected in saturated, symmetrical relatedness groups unless the genetic relatedness among group members is extremely high. In contrast, it can be selected in the saturated, asymmetrical relatedness (parent-offspring) groups with complete skew. If we also consider the future reproduction of subordinates, caste differentiation is possible only after the group size reaches a certain critical point. Most importantly, caste differentiation in a parent-offspring group increases its saturated group size. The positive feedback between group size and the degree of caste differentiation can continue in principle until completely sterile worker castes emerge. Thus, at least in the case of parent-offspring groups, group size but not the degree of reproductive skew may be a better index of the level of social complexity. A scheme for the evolution of sterile worker castes that integrates the role of group size into the framework of reproductive skew theory is proposed.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Are reproductive skew models evolutionarily stable?

Reproductive skew theory has become a popular way to phrase problems and test hypotheses of social evolution. The diversity of reproductive skew models probably stems from the ease of generating new variations. However, I show that the logical basis of skew models, that is, the way in which group formation is modelled, makes use of hidden assumptions that may be problematical as they are unlikely to be fulfilled in all social systems. I illustrate these problems by re-analysing the basic concessive skew model with staying incentives. First, the model assumes that dispersal is an all-or-nothing response: all subordinates disperse as soon as concessions drop below a certain value. This leads to a discontinuous 'cliff-edge' shape of dominant fitness, and it is not clear that selection will balance a population at such an edge. Second, it is assumed that subordinates have perfect knowledge of their benefits if they stay in the group. I examine the effects of relaxing these two assumptions. Relaxing the first one strengthens reproductive skew theory, but relaxing the latter makes evolutionary stability disappear. In cases where subordinates cannot accurately measure benefits provided by the individual dominant with which they live, so that their behaviour instead evolves as a response to population-wide average benefits, the logic of reproductive skew models does not apply. This warns against too indiscriminate an application of reproductive skew theory to problems in social evolution: for example, transactional models of extra-pair paternity assume perfect knowledge of paternity, which is unlikely to hold true in nature. It is recommended that models specify the mechanisms by which individuals can adjust their behaviour to that of others, and pay attention to changes that occur in evolutionary versus behavioural time.

Animals↗
PubMed1981

Suicidal behavior: toward an explanation of differences in female and male rates.

The explanation of sex differences is based on Breed's five "components of a basic suicide syndrome" which appears to be a satisfactory model for explaining male suicide. Thus far it has not been used to explain female suicidal behavior and sex differences in attempts. It appears that if sex differences are noted the model is adequate. This is because the same factors affect the sexes differently; the content and structure of the roles are different. Failure for males is obvious, but the female role is diffuse and lacking in standards for both success and failure. Female commitment to role and cultural goals is not less, just different and diffuse. Rigidity of roles varies but male goals are usually more specific. Shame, when men do blame themselves, is in the context of a narrow role. Contrary to popular belief, isolation of men is probably greater than that of women.

Dominance-Subordination↗
PubMed1998

Infanticide and expulsion of females in a cooperative mammal.

In cooperative groups of suricates (Suricata suricatta), helpers of both sexes assist breeding adults in defending and feeding pups, and survival rises in larger groups. Despite this, dominant breeding females expel subordinate females from the group in the latter half of their (own) pregnancy apparently because adult females sometimes kill their pups. Some of the females that have been expelled are allowed to rejoin the group soon after the dominant female's pups are born and subsequently assist in rearing the pups. Female helpers initially resist expulsion and repeatedly attempt to return to their natal group, indicating that it is unlikely that dominant females need to grant them reproductive concessions to retain them in the group.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Brain mediation of Anolis social dominance displays. II. Differential forebrain serotonin turnover, and effects of specific 5-HT receptor agonists.

Serotonin (5-HT) functions are associated with social dominance status in diverse species, but to date the brain regions wherein 5-HT exerts such effects are uncertain. Here, we indexed 5-HT turnover in male Anolis carolinensis as the ratio of 5-HT to its metabolite, 5-hydroxy-indol-acetic acid, and also as the accumulation of the in vivo tracer 14C-alpha-methyl-tryptophan (14C-AMT). After patching one eye, displaying dominant animals increased both measures of 5-HT turnover in the forebrain hemisphere receiving display-evocative visual stimuli, compared to control, contralateral brain, whereas both 5-HT turnover indices were decreased when animals displayed submissively. In contrast, various non-displaying controls showed forebrain symmetry on both measures. Drugs that stimulate 5-HT(2C) receptors in mammals, and have 5-HT(2C)-like binding in A. carolinensis, evoked some elements of dominant display behaviors in non-dominant anole males and also activated dorsolateral basal ganglia as seen in non-medicated dominants when they display [Baxter et al., 2001]. Thus, acute changes in forebrain 5-HT output from baseline equilibrium, acting at 5-HT(2C)-like receptors, might effect some elements of the dominant vs. submissive male anoles' territorial displays. A mechanistic model of how this might occur is offered. Given similarities in 5-HT systems, forebrain functions, and territorial display routines, similar mechanisms might have similar functions in other amniotes, including primates.

Aggression↗
PubMed2003

Task demands, task interest, and task performance: implications for human subjects research and practicing what we preach.

Through the continuous investigation of humans in organizations, we have learned much about motivation, attitudes, and performance. For example, Yukl and others have helped increase our understanding of influence tactics and the effect they have on the performance of subordinates, supervisors, and peers. Some tactics (and combinations of tactics) lead to resistance, some lead to compliance, and some lead to commitment. In this study, we raise the question of whether or not we incorporate our knowledge of these research findings into the design, implementation, and interpretation of our own research studies that require the participation of human subjects. In a survey of 134 subjects from a previous social science study, we found that performance varied across the sample, consistent with the concepts of resistance, compliance, and commitment. In addition, the variance in performance could be explained, in part, by task interest and perceived task demands. Implications are discussed.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

The spread and effect of HIV-1 infection in sub-Saharan Africa.

Africa is the continent most severely affected by the global HIV-1 epidemic, with east and southern Africa in general more severely affected than west and central Africa. Differences in the spread of the epidemic can be accounted for by a complex interplay of sexual behaviour and biological factors that affect the probability of HIV-1 transmission per sex act. Sexual behaviour patterns are determined by cultural and socioeconomic contexts. In sub-Saharan Africa, some traditions and socioeconomic developments have contributed to the extensive spread of HIV-1 infection, including the subordinate position of women, impoverishment and decline of social services, rapid urbanisation and modernisation, and wars and conflicts. Populations in many parts of Africa are becoming trapped in a vicious circle as the HIV-1 epidemic leads to high mortality rates in young and economically productive age groups, and thus leads to further impoverishment. Interventions to control HIV-1 should not only target individuals, but also aim to change those aspects of cultural and socioeconomic context that increase the vulnerability to HIV-1 of people and communities.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2000

Word order priming in written and spoken sentence production.

An experiment is reported that showed priming of the word order of auxiliary verb and past participle in Dutch subordinate clauses, both in speaking and in writing. Participants completed sentence fragments to full sentences. Prime sentence fragments were constrained so as to be completed with only one possible word order. Target sentence fragments, presented immediately after the prime fragments, could be completed with the same word order as that of the prime and an alternative order with the two words exchanged. Significant priming effects were obtained, so that the same word orders tended to be used in prime and target. We interpret this as evidence for a distinct process of constituent structure linearization during sentence production, which serves to ensure the fluency of speech and writing.

Humans↗
PubMed2002

Factors influencing the development of stereotypic and redirected behaviours in young horses: findings of a four year prospective epidemiological study.

Stereotypies are invariant and repetitive behaviour patterns that seemingly have no function, which tend to develop in captive animals faced with insoluble problems and may be indicative of reduced welfare. A 4 year prospective study of the factors influencing the development of stereotypic and redirected behaviours (abnormal behaviour) in a population of 225 young Thoroughbred and part-Thoroughbred horses was conducted between 1995 and 1999. Abnormal behaviour affected 34.7% of the population. Multivariable analysis showed that foals of low- or middle-ranking mares were less likely to develop abnormal behaviour than foals of dominant mares (rate ratio (RR) 0.23, P<0.01; RR 0.48, P<0.01, respectively). Weaning by confinement in a stable or barn was associated with an increased rate of development of abnormal behaviour, compared with paddock-weaning (RR 2.19, P<0.05), and housing in barns, rather than at grass after weaning, was associated with a further increase (RR 2.54, P<0.01). Specific stereotypic and redirected behaviours were then considered as separate outcomes. Crib-biting was initiated by 10.5% of horses at median age 20 weeks, weaving by 4.6% of horses at median age 60 weeks, box-walking by 2.3% of horses at median age 64 weeks and wood-chewing by 30.3% of horses at median age 30 weeks. Wood-chewing developed at a lower rate in horses born to subordinate or mid-ranking mares than in horses born to dominant mares (RR 0.29, P<0.01; RR 0.41, P<0.01, respectively), and at a higher rate in horses kept in barns or stables rather than at grass after weaning (RR 4.49, P<0.001; RR 1A6, P<0.001, respectively). Feeding concentrates after weaning was associated with a 4-fold increase in the rate of development of crib-biting (RR 4.12, P = 0.02). The results of this study support the idea that simple changes in feeding, housing and weaning practices could substantially lower the incidence of abnormal behaviour in young horses.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1993

The impact of differences in subordinate and supervisor age on attitudes and performance.

In a study of the influence of differences in employee age and the age of the employee's immediate supervisor, an age-difference variable was created and used to test 4 competing sets of predictions for performance and attitudinal outcomes within a sample of 292 high school teachers. Analyses revealed that employees who were older than their supervisors (a) reported better working relations with their supervisors, (b) evaluated their supervisors more favorably, and (c) received ratings from their supervisors that were not less favorable than other employees. The results suggest that bias does not necessarily operate against employees who are older than their supervisors and that a relational approach that is based on attribute similarity-dissimilarity offers an additional source of systematic variance that can aid in explaining individual responses.

Adult↗
PubMed1980

The scientific and ethical basis of the clinical evaluation of medicines. Report of an international conference, held as a guest conference at the Ditchley Foundations, Ditchley Park, England, 13-16 September 1979.

The scientific basis of the clinical evaluation of medicines is well established, and clinical investigators have also given considerable attention to the ethical problems. But of recent years there has been increasing concern with and criticism of the ethics of these procedures. Lawyers, medical doctors and others have expressed the opinion that the randomised controlled therapeutic trial subordinates the rights of the individual to the advantage of society to a degree that can even be "criminal". Clinical investigators must respond to such criticism, even if it stems only from a few individuals. Therefore, a conference was convened on this topic. The scientific basis of evaluation of medicines in man was reviewed and found to be in accord with the best ethical standards. The objections that have been advanced were considered and were found to be both misconceived and liable to lead to the proliferation of medicines inadequately evaluated for efficacy and safety, to the disadvantage of society.

Clinical Trials as Topic↗
PubMed1991

Serotonergic mechanisms promote dominance acquisition in adult male vervet monkeys.

In a counter-balanced, cross-over study, we examined the contributions of serotonergic systems to the acquisition of social dominance in adult male vervet monkeys. Subjects were members of 12 social groups, each containing 3 adult males, at least 3 adult females, and their offspring. Animals were observed in 5 intervals including a first baseline, a first experimental, a second baseline, a second experimental, and a third baseline period. At the end of the first baseline period, the dominant male was removed from each group. In each group, one of the two remaining subordinate males was selected at random for treatment and during the first experimental period, 6 of the 12 treated males received drugs that enhanced serotonergic activity (3 were given tryptophan 40 mg/kg/day and 3 fluoxetine 2 mg/kg/day). The other 6 treated males received drugs that reduced serotonergic function (3 were given fenfluramine 2 mg/kg/day and 3 cyproheptadine 60 micrograms/kg/day). At the end of the first experimental period, the original dominant male was returned to his group and the second baseline period began. In all instances, the originally dominant male regained his dominant position. The second experimental period began with the dominant male again being removed and, the 12 treated males were given the treatment they had not received in the first experimental period. At the start of the third 12-week baseline period, the original dominant male was returned to his group and resumed his dominant status. When the 12 treated subjects received tryptophan or fluoxetine, they became dominant in all instances. When they received fenfluramine or cyproheptadine, their vehicle-treated cage mates became dominant. The sequence of the behavioral changes shown by the treated males as they acquired dominance status paralleled those seen in naturalistic conditions. These observations support the distinction between dominance and aggression and strongly suggest that when hierarchical relationships are uncertain, serotonergic mechanisms may mediate the behaviors which permit a male to attain high dominance status.

Aggression↗