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PubMed2005

Defining dangerous anthropogenic interference: the role of science, the limits of science.

Defining "dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system" in the context of Article 2 of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) presents a complex challenge for those developing long-term climate policy. Natural science has a key role to play in quantifying vulnerabilities of elements of the Earth system and estimating the risks from a changing climate. But attempts to interpret Article 2 will inevitably draw on understanding from social science, psychology, law, and ethics. Here I consider the limits of science in defining climate "danger" by focusing on the potential disintegration of the major ice sheets as an example of an extreme impact. I show that considerations of timescale, uncertainty, and learning preclude a definition of danger drawn purely from natural science. Decision makers will be particularly challenged by one characteristic of global problems: answers to some scientific questions become less accurate over decadal timescales, meandering toward the wrong answer, a feature I call negative learning. I argue for a precautionary approach to Article 2 that would be based initially on current, limited scientific understanding of the future of the ice sheets.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2006

Studying delays in breast cancer diagnosis and treatment: critical realism as a new foundation for inquiry.

PURPOSE/OBJECTIVES: To examine how delays in breast cancer care currently are conceptualized and to introduce philosophical and theoretical tenets of critical realism as an alternative approach. DATA SOURCES: Health and social sciences literature. DATA SYNTHESIS: Diagnostic and treatment delays in breast cancer most frequently are conceptualized as patient, provider, or system related. The approach has limited utility in guiding explanatory analysis because it does not acknowledge the social context in which the delays occur. The philosophical tenets of critical realism and two related theoretical approaches are an alternative. They illustrate how an individual's biologic, social, and material resources may undermine or support structural inequities in access to breast cancer care. CONCLUSIONS: Critical realism provides a useful framework for analysis of links between social inequalities and delays in breast cancer diagnosis and treatment. IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSING: Access to breast cancer care could be better understood and conceptualized by basing future research and theoretical endeavors on a critical realist perspective.

Breast Neoplasms↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Problems of world outlook and methodology of science integration in biological studies].

Problems of worldoutlook and methodology of the natural-science knowledge are considered basing on the analysis of tendencies in the development of the membrane theory of cell processes and the use of principles of biological membrane functioning when solving some scientific and applied problems pertaining to different branches of chemistry and biology. The notion scientific knowledge integration is defined as interpenetration of approaches, methods and ideas of different branches of knowledge and enrichment on this basis of their content resulting in knowledge augmentation in each field taken separately. These processes are accompanied by appearance of new branches of knowledge - sciences "on junction" and their subsequent differentiations. The analysis of some gnoseological situations shows that integration of sciences contributes to coordination and some agreement of thinking styles of different specialists, puts forward keen personality of a scientist demanding, in particular, his high professional mobility. Problems of scientific activity organization are considered, which involve social sciences into the integration processes. The role of philosophy in the integration processes is emphasized.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

[Quality of life in medicine--origins, main concepts and directions of change].

Assessment of the quality of life depends not only health, but also on many other factors, which together make up the everyday life of the individual, including: independence, relationship to the environment, personal beliefs, attitudes and religion. The illness process, irrespective of its stage or magnitude, influences the life of the patient, very often leading to a break down in organisation and limiting his/her ability to fulfill his/her roles and social functions. In consequence, a lowering of living standards results. For many years, health was measured in very narrow terms and in a negative sense. Deviations from normal health were measured, with no attempt to find indicators of good health. The aim of this paper is to present the origins and main concepts underlying the notion of quality of life, which developed first within the social sciences, and since the 1970s has been recognised within medicine. The approach demonstrates a different perspective for understanding a sick person, not merely from the biological point of view, but also taking into account aspects of psychological social and spiritual functioning. Introduction of the concept of quality of life is determined by the fact that the aim of therapeutic interventions ought to be not only reducing the symptoms of an illness, but also providing an improvement in the sick person's functioning, thus leading to an improvement in his/her quality of life.

Clinical Medicine↗
PubMed2000

The future of optimism.

Recent theoretical discussions of optimism as an inherent aspect of human nature converge with empirical investigations of optimism as an individual difference to show that optimism can be a highly beneficial psychological characteristic linked to good mood, perseverance, achievement, and physical health. Questions remain about optimism as a research topic and more generally as a societal value. Is the meaning of optimism richer than its current conceptualization in cognitive terms? Are optimism and pessimism mutually exclusive? What is the relationship between optimism and reality, and what are the costs of optimistic beliefs that prove to be wrong? How can optimism be cultivated? How does optimism play itself out across different cultures? Optimism promises to be one of the important topics of interest to positive social science, as long as it is approached in an even-handed way.

Attitude↗
PubMed2002

The history of confounding.

Confounding is a basic problem of comparability--and therefore has always been present in science. Originally a plain English word, it acquired more specific meanings in epidemiologic thinking about experimental and non-experimental research. The use of the word can be traced to Fisher. The concept was developed more fully in social science research, among others by Kish. Landmark developments in epidemiology in the second half of the 20th century were by Cornfield and by Miettinen. These developments emphasised that reasoning about confounding is almost entirely an a priori process that we have to impose upon the data and the data-analysis to arrive at a meaningful interpretation. The problems of confounding present their old challenges again in recent applications to genetic epidemiology.

Case-Control Studies↗
PubMed2004

Developing and systematically implementing participatory action research.

Participatory Action Research (PAR) is a collaborative approach to conducting research that recently emerged as a paradigm for bridging science and clinical practice. The key characteristic of this approach--collaboration between consumers and researchers--often increases the relevance of research while maintaining the standards of scientific rigor. Although PAR is receiving increased attention from researchers and consumers in social science and public health, it has not been implemented widely. Some of the reasons for a limited application of PAR in the field include lack of knowledge about PAR and strategies for its implementation. This article defines PAR, provides an overview of the characteristics of this approach, and discusses 4 elements for systematic incorporation of the PAR approach into the research process. The elements are (1) participant selection and recruitment, (2) role and relationship clarification for researchers and participants, (3) research team education, and (4) management and support.

Community Participation↗
PubMed1991

UNESCO conference on human rights and bioethics.

UNESCO's Division of Human Rights and Peace, together with the USSR Academy of Science and the USSR Academy of Medicine, held an international bioethics conference in Moscow May 13-15, 1991. Twenty participants from the United States, Europe, Asia, and South America participated....The Moscow conference, which took place on the new campus of the USSR Academy of Social Sciences, addressed four topics: (1) organ transplantation; (2) informed consent; (3) bioethics and the law; and (4) institutionalization of bioethics....

Bioethical Issues↗
PubMed2002

Interpersonal trust and voluntary associations: examining three approaches.

The relationship between interpersonal trust and membership in voluntary associations is a persistent research finding in sociology. What is more, the notion of trust has become a central issue in current social science theorizing covering such diverse approaches as transaction costs economics or cognitive sociology. In different ways and for different purposes, these approaches address the role of voluntary organizations, although, as this paper argues, much of this thinking remains sketchy and underdeveloped. Against an empirical portrait of this relationship, the purpose of this paper is to assess such theorizing. We first set out to explicate major approaches to trust in economics, sociology and political science, using the non-profit or voluntary organization as a focal point. We then examine the various approaches in terms of their strengths and weaknesses, and, finally, identify key areas for theoretical development. In particular, we point to the social movement literature, the social psychology of trust, and recent thinking about civil society.

Humans↗
PubMed1999

Shifting the paradigm in tuberculosis control: illustrations from India.

Drawing on literature from India and key contributions from social science, this paper asks and attempts to answer the question 'who is to blame for treatment failures in TB'? Some key lessons emerge: effective tuberculosis control cannot be achieved so long as the disease is considered in isolation from the social processes that maintain it, create the conditions facilitating its spread and act as barriers to care. Insights into the economic and social burdens incurred with a diagnosis of TB are essential to understand why many patients, especially the most disadvantaged, are unable to comply with treatment regimens. TB and health care interventions need to be appropriate to the health service contexts in which they are applied, and sensitive to the competing demands, needs and priorities of people's lives. The paper argues for the need to reorient TB control programmes towards enabling patients to obtain care. The problem of access emerges as central to people's ability to obtain and maintain appropriate therapy. Examples and characteristics of successful non-governmental projects, from which policy makers, programmers and practitioners could learn, are outlined and contrasted with more rigid directly observed treatment approaches. We conclude that treatment failures are not patient failures, and that TB control programmes need to address the social dimensions of TB, and adhere to the principles of good TB care, with the same commitment that is devoted to ensuring patients follow treatment guidelines. We suggest a paradigm shift away from a focus on diseased patients towards enabling health in the community.

Antitubercular Agents↗
PubMed1992

Overview of contemporary families.

Perceptions and definitions of the term family have always been varied and complex. Hence, an overview of contemporary families is presented here from several perspectives. First, families as they have been perceived by nursing and social science theorists are reviewed. Demographic changes in the family over the last two decades are then presented, followed by an examination of issues faced by families as they change over time. Finally, families as they exist within varying cultural and social contexts are discussed. Emphasis is placed on the need for health care providers to be flexible in defining and working with individual patients and their families.

Critical Care↗
PubMed1990

Some implications for the study of the doctor-patient interaction: power, structure, and agency in the works of Howard Waitzkin and Arthur Kleinman.

This article critiques two major theoretical perspectives concerning the doctor-patient interaction in medical anthropology represented by the work of Howard Waitzkin and Arthur Kleinman. In his work on the doctor-patient interaction Waitzkin has tended to draw on structural explanations which subordinate the role of agency. Kleinman's work emphasizes agency without satisfactorily integrating structural or social causality in his work on the doctor-patient interaction. The work of Anthony Giddens and others has clarified the structure/agency dichotomy in social science to which the nature of power is central.

Dominance-Subordination↗
PubMed2005

[AIDS mortality and socioeconomic indexes in the city of Sao Paulo, 1994-2002].

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the correlation between AIDS mortality rates and social inclusion/exclusion indexes among male and female populations aged between 25 to 49 years. METHODS: The study was carried out in 96 administrative districts of the municipality of Sao Paulo in the period 1994-2002. Mortality data were collected from the Program for Improving Local Mortality Data and from population estimates based on the 1991 and 2000 census of the State System Data Analysis (SEADE) Institute and the Municipal Department of Planning. The indicators were obtained from the city's map of exclusion (1996 and 2000). Statistical analysis was performed using Pearson's correlation test (at 5% level). RESULTS: A significant positive correlation was seen among men between AIDS mortality and the district life quality index from 1994 to 1998 (p<0.05). Among women, a significant negative correlation (p<0.05) was seen for the whole study period between AIDS mortality and the equity index, which measures the proportion of illiterate women who are family heads. From 2000, it was also observed a significant negative correlation (p<0.05) among women between AIDS mortality and the global social exclusion index. CONCLUSIONS: The study results suggest a shift of AIDS mortality to exclusion areas and might indicate a relationship between AIDS mortality and socioeconomic factors. Further epidemiological and social sciences studies are needed to investigate these associations.

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome↗
PubMed2003

Astrobiology, the transcendent science: the promise of astrobiology as an integrative approach for science and engineering education and research.

Astrobiology is rapidly gaining the worldwide attention of scientists, engineers and the public. Astrobiology's captivation is due to its inherently interesting focus on life, its origins and distribution in the Universe. Because of its remarkable breadth as a scientific field, astrobiology touches on virtually all disciplines in the physical, biological and social sciences as well as engineering. The multidisciplinary nature and the appeal of its subject matter make astrobiology ideal for integrating the teaching of science at all levels in educational curricula. The rationale for implementing novel educational programs in astrobiology is presented along with specific research and educational policy recommendations.

Biological Evolution↗
PubMed1989

[Will biology be the leading science at the end of the 20th century? Observations on the transferability of scientific models].

At the end of the twentieth century biology starts to take the place of physics as a trend-setting science. Complexity and the dynamics of nature per se are not the reason for this. Actually the construction of nature by mankind today is more complex and more dynamic than ever before. The transfer of scientific patterns, describing nature, into the social sciences is, in fact, a retransfer.

Biology↗
PubMed1989

Substantive theorizing.

This paper outlines, for purposes of discussion and debate, an ecologically oriented approach to theory and research in psychology and related social sciences. This approach, labeled "substantive theorizing", is intended as a constructive response to recent critiqies of the logical positivism paradigm. Substantive theorizing is presented as the intersection of a series of choices by researchers, including decisions to focus on limited but socially important domains; to use multiple methods; to develop intimate familiarity with chosen domains; and to examine processes in their natural social and temporal contexts. The approach emphasizes the process, rather than the product, of conceptual framing and development. Among the projected benefits of substantive theorizing are development of new concepts and procedures, blurring of disciplinary boundaries, greater understanding of socially important domains, and increased utility of research for policy and practice. Projected costs include long-term research commitments and lack of support from academic departments and research funding agencies.

Choice Behavior↗
PubMed1987

The beliefs and attitudes of a group of men in mid-life towards tobacco use.

This paper considers the attitudes and beliefs of a group of men in mid-life, living in the city of Glasgow, towards smoking. Utilising an ethnographic interviewing technique it explores, in depth, issues which have been highlighted by earlier studies using more prevalent social-science questionnaire methods. The findings corroborate those of other studies particularly with regard to the reasons as to why people smoke, and the clear association between high levels of smoking and drinking. It goes further, however, in showing the importance of social forces in these issues. Changes in the strength of anti-smoking feelings in the general population, how work and leisure relate to smoking, the importance of breaks in daily routine for giving up smoking, and how the round sharing of cigarettes influences the pace and quantity of cigarettes smoked, are discussed.

Alcohol Drinking↗
PubMed1989

Self, identity, and subjective experiences of schizophrenia: in search of the subject.

Schizophrenia is an I am illness--one that may overtake and redefine the identity of the person. This essay explores concepts of personhood and subjectivity from social science that are useful in understanding the experiencing subject in schizophrenia. Relationships between the self and sickness have not been investigated adequately with reference to their influence on prognosis. Chronicity is conceived of as a loss of self and of positive social roles and identity. Methods for the study of self and identity in relation to schizophrenia include analysis of illness-identity representations made by persons with schizophrenia.

Adaptation, Psychological↗