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PubMed1991

A compartmental model to analyze ruminal digestion.

In contrast to digestion models that include a discrete lag phase, a compartmental digestion model was proposed. It assumed the existence of a lag compartment and a digestion compartment. Substrate present in the digestion compartment was subject to first-order kinetics digestion. Flow of substrate from the lag compartment to the digestion compartment was proposed to be a first-order process and likely was affected by hydration of substrate, bacterial attachment, and colonization. The proposed model was compared with models that assumed the existence of a discrete lag phase. Parameter estimates for these models were obtained either through logarithmic transformation of data or nonlinear regression. Statistically, there was no difference between the compartmental model and the nonlinear model with a discrete lag phase. Differences in parameter estimates between these two models were small. Residual mean squares were higher for the logarithmically transformed models. Differences in parameter estimates between these models and the compartmental model depended on the structure of the experimental data. In a number of cases, the nonlinear parameters of the compartmental model converged to the same value, resulting in a different interpretation of the model. Residual mean squares for predicting rate of disappearance were lowest for the compartmental model.

Animals↗
PubMed1992

Effects of varying forage and concentrate carbohydrates on nutrient digestibilities and milk production by dairy cows.

Five Holstein cows with ruminal cannulas were used in a 5 x 5 Latin square design to determine the effect of replacing forage NDF with soyhull NDF and varying concentrations of nonstructural carbohydrates on nutrient digestion and milk production. Diets in which NDF percentage from forage (corn silage: alfalfa hay, 1:1) was 80 (control), 70, or 60 were formulated by substituting soyhulls for forage; total forage was 43.2, 36.7, and 31.1% of the diets, respectively, but total NDF was 31%. Nonstructural carbohydrates were formulated to be 47 (control), 35, or 25% by substituting soyhulls, roasted soybeans, and Ca soaps for concentrate. Ruminal acetate: propionate ratio decreased linearly when diets lower in forage NDF were fed, but it increased quadratically when dietary nonstructural carbohydrates were reduced. Apparent digestibility of OM increased quadratically, but NDF digestibility and lactation performance were unaffected when diets lower in forage NDF were fed. Digestibility of NDF increased linearly when nonstructural carbohydrates were reduced, perhaps because of greater digestibility of soyhull NDF and smaller negative associative effects. Fat from soybeans and Ca soaps was increased as nonstructural carbohydrates decreased. Added fat probably increased fatty acid digestibility and decreased milk protein percentage. Greater FCM production without correspondingly greater feed intake or BW loss increased feed efficiency as nonstructural carbohydrates decreased. In dairy rations containing soyhulls, 60% of dietary NDF from forage should maintain lactation performance, and decreasing nonstructural carbohydrates to 25 to 35% of feed DM, coupled with adding dietary fat, may decrease negative associative effects and improve efficiency of milk production.

Ammonia↗
PubMed1992

Influence of buffer pH and raw corn starch addition on in vitro fiber digestion kinetics.

The impact was studied of buffer pH (5.8, 6.2, and 6.8) on in vitro digestion kinetics of NDF from alfalfa hay, bromegrass hay, corn silage, and alfalfa and bromegrass hays with raw corn starch added to approximate a ration containing 30% NDF. Ash-free NDF was determined at 0, 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, 48, 72, and 96 h of fermentation. Kinetic parameters were estimated by nonlinear regression using an iteratively reweighted least squares technique. Addition of raw corn starch decreased fiber digestion rate for alfalfa hay and lag for bromegrass hay. Both rate and lag of NDF digestion of all substrates were affected negatively below pH 6.2. Predicted ruminal NDF digestibilities (as percentage of that at pH 6.8 treatment) declined below pH 6.2 for all forages; addition of starch decreased predicted ruminal NDF digestibility by 23% for both alfalfa and bromegrass hays, even at pH 6.8. Results suggest that low pH decreases fiber digestion rate and increases lag and that starch accentuates this effect for some substrates.

Animal Feed↗
PubMed1994

Intake, digestibility, and ruminal degradability of shredded hay.

Thirty-two Outaouais intact male lambs averaging 39.1 kg were assigned randomly to a 2 x 2 factorial arrangement of treatments consisting of two forages and two methods of harvesting to determine intake and digestibility. The four treatments fed during the experiment consisted of alfalfa and timothy hays harvested with either a prototype mat maker or a conventional mower conditioner. Hays were fed for ad libitum intake for the entire experiment, and data on digestibility and intake were collected for 9 d after a 21-d adaptation. Ruminal degradability of DM, N, and ADF of hays was estimated with two fistulated cows using nylon bags incubated up to 96 h. Harvesting with the prototype mat maker compared with the conventional mower generally increased intake and digestibility of alfalfa and timothy hays. Ruminal degradability of DM and the potentially degradable fraction of DM and ADF was higher when hay was harvested with the prototype mat maker than with the conventional mower. The increased digestibility of hay harvested with the prototype mat maker could be explained by the increased digestibility in the rumen because harvesting with the prototype mat maker increased the potentially degradable fraction of DM and ADF. These results suggest that the digestible energy content of hay was increased by shredding.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed1994

Monosaccharide digestibility by dairy cows fed diets high in concentrate and containing alfalfa silages.

Alfalfa was ensiled by the conventional wilting process or as a mixture of 70% fresh alfalfa plus 30% wheat straw treated with SO2. The effects of these silages on the digestibility of monosaccharide constituents of the TMR by dairy cows was examined. Ten cows in early lactation were divided into two groups of 5 that had similar performance data at the onset of the experiment. Cows were fed for ad libitum intake for 28 d a TMR composed of 70% concentrates, 15% alfalfa hay, and 15% silage. The alfalfa silage had lower glucose, xylose, and total carbohydrates than the silage of alfalfa plus wheat straw treated with SO2. Digestibilities of DM (70 to 71%), OM (72%), and total carbohydrate (83%) were similar in the two TMR. The digestibilities of NDF carbohydrate for both TMR were similar. Regardless of treatment, NDF glucose was more digestible than NDF xylose and NDF uronic acid and less digestible than NDF arabinose, galactose, and mannose. The digestibility of total neutral detergent-soluble carbohydrates was 89% in both TMR, but those of neutral detergent-soluble xylose, mannose, and galactose were lower than those of neutral detergent-soluble glucose, arabinose, and pectin.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

Influence of roasting or sodium hydroxide treatment of barley on digestion in lactating cows.

Three cannulated, lactating cows were used in a 3 x 3 Latin square design to determine the effect of roasting or NaOH treatment of barley on ruminal fermentation and site and extent of digestion of nutrients. Experimental treatments were rolled barley, roasted (exit temperature, 135 degrees C) and rolled barley, and treated with 4% NaOH and 220 L of H2O/tonne of barley. Diets also consisted of grass silage and soybean meal. Treatment with NaOH reduced concentrations of several AA, starch, and NDF in the barley. Starch digestibility in the rumen was lower for barley that was treated with NaOH but was unaffected for roasted barley. Digestibilities of N and starch in the small intestine were reduced for barley treated with NaOH, but values for rolled and roasted barley were similar. Apparent total tract digestibility of starch was reduced for the NaOH treated barley. Treatment of barley with NaOH tended to have a detrimental effect on feed intake, digestibility, and milk production. Roasting of barley did not appear to affect the site or extent of carbohydrate digestion, but roasting protected N from ruminal degradation. The protective effect on the carbohydrate fraction would be expected to be greater if the grain were cooled prior to rolling so that the protein matrix of the starch granule remained intact.

Amino Acids↗
PubMed1995

Effect of sorghum grain processing on site and extent of digestion of starch in lactating dairy cows.

Four lactating Holstein cows, fitted with T-type cannulas in the proximal duodenum were used in a 4 x 4 Latin square design to study the effects of sorghum grain processing on site of digestion of nutrients. Diets were steam-rolled corn, dry-rolled sorghum, steam-flaked sorghum, and an equal mixture of steam-flaked and dry-rolled sorghum as 43% of DM in a TMR (35:65, ratio of forage to concentrate). Intake and duodenal starch for all diets averaged 6.8 and 2.1 kg/d. Apparent total tract and ruminal digestibilities of starch for the respective diets averaged 81, 60, 70, and 60 and 97, 85, 91, and 89%. Starch digestibilities in the intestine were higher for steam-flaked than for dry-rolled or mixed sorghum (83 vs. 63 and 61%). Consistent with less postruminal passage of starch, cows fed steam-flaked sorghum had higher fecal pH than did cows on other treatments. No effects of diet occurred on NDF or ADF digestibilities. Compared with dry rolling of sorghum, steam flaking increased the digestibility of starch in the rumen from 60 to 81% and in the small intestine from 63 to 83%, increasing digestible starch intake 9% (6.4 vs. 5.9 kg/d). Values for steam-rolled corn were intermediate. Microbial protein in the rumen was not significantly altered by diet.

Animal Feed↗
PubMed1996

Apparent digestibility of minerals by lactating cows from a total mixed ration supplemented with poultry litter.

Apparent digestibility of minerals by lactating cows from a multiple-component, conventional Israeli TMR (control) and from a TMR containing 10% poultry litter (DM basis) was examined. Ten cows in early lactation were divided into two groups of similar performance (39 kg of milk/d) and fed for ad libitum intake the two TMR for 28 d. Poultry litter contributed, as a percentage of total requirements, 44.4% of Ca, 41.0% of P, 32.0% of S, 22.8% of Mg, and 25.9% of K. Apparent digestibility of the macroelements was higher for cows fed the TMR supplemented with poultry litter than for those fed the control TMR. Apparent digestibility of the control TMR was 22.3% for Ca, 29.4% for Mg, 39.1% for P, and 62.2% for S; the apparent digestibility of the treatment TMR was 30.1% for Ca, 45.6% for Mg, 45.3% for P, and 65.6% for S. Poultry litter contributed the entire requirements of Zn, Mn, and Co; 56% of Cu; and 32% of Se. The apparent digestibility of the control TMR was 15.6% for Cu, 39.6% for Zn, 8.51% for Mn, 42.8% for Co, and 41.6% for Se, and the apparent digestibility of the treatment TMR was 27.9% for Cu, 54.0% for Zn, 17.8% for Mn, 37.0% for Co, and 63.9% for Se. Poultry litter is a good source of macro- and microelements for lactating cows and, at 10% of the TMR, could ensure against mineral deficiencies.

Animal Feed↗
PubMed1998

Ash content of detergent fibers in feeds, digesta, and feces and its relevance in fiber digestibility calculations.

The influence of insoluble ash in diet, digesta, and fecal samples was evaluated. Ash-free values of neutral detergent fiber (NDF) and acid detergent fiber (ADF) for feed, digesta, and fecal samples were compared with uncorrected values of NDF and ADF in two digestibility experiments. Six feed samples were selected at random along with four duodenal and two fecal samples; the latter two were a part of two digestion studies. The silica composition of feed samples was low with the exception of oat hay and rice straw. Ash-free values of NDF and ADF for digesta and fecal samples were lower than uncorrected values of NDF and ADF, and silica accounted for the majority of the differences. The use of ash-free values of NDF and ADF in both digestibility experiments with dairy cows resulted in more realistic digestibility estimates and reduced the amount of variability associated with the calculation of the digestibility of NDF and ADF in the rumen and total digestive tract. The source of the insoluble ash was not identified but could have come from individual feedstuffs or the consumption of sand. Sample contamination by silica and other ash components may influence NDF and ADF composition if the fiber residues are not ashed prior to calculation of NDF and ADF.

Animal Feed↗
PubMed1998

Performance, ruminal fermentation, and site of starch digestion in early lactation cows fed corn grain harvested and processed differently.

Two experiments were conducted to assess the effects of corn grain processing on performance, ruminal fermentation, and starch digestion in early lactation dairy cows. Diets were based on wilted alfalfa silage and high moisture or dry corn grain that was either ground or rolled. Thirty-four cows (17 multi-parous) were used to measure effects on intake and lactational performance in a free-stall environment during wk 2 to 15 postpartum. Grinding increased dry matter intake, particularly for cows fed diets containing dry corn, and tended to increase yields of milk, protein lactose, and SNF. Cow performance was not affected by the moisture content of the corn grain. In the digestion experiment, six cows (43 d of lactation) with ruminal, duodenal, and ileal cannulas were used to measure ruminal and intestinal digestion. Search digestion in the rumen and small intestine was greater for high moisture corn, but disappearance of starch in the large intestine was greater for dry corn. Both the grinding process and the high moisture content of the corn increased starch digestibility in the total tract. Flow of microbial N in the duodenum was not affected by treatment. High moisture corn increased starch digestion in the rumen and total tract and enhanced ruminal fermentation as indicated by increased volatile fatty acids and decreased NH3 concentrations in the rumen. In the production experiment, however, only grinding improved the value of corn; ensiling at high moisture content had little effect.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Influence of short- and long-term exposure to a hot environment on rumen passage rate and diet digestibility by Friesian heifers.

Effects of short- and long-term exposure to a hot environment on diet digestibility and rumen passage rate were studied in four, 10-mo-old Friesian heifers housed in a climatic chamber. The trial lasted 65 d. Twenty-five days were spent under thermal comfort (temperature-humidity index = 64), and 40 d were spent under hot conditions (temperature-humidity index = 84). Three digestibility and rumen passage rate trials were performed during the 65 d. Chromium oxide was used as an external marker. The first digestibility and rumen passage rate trial (trial 1) was performed under thermal comfort; trials 2 and 3 were performed under hot conditions. Exposure to the hot environment reduced dry matter intake and increased water intake and rectal temperature compared with those during the thermal comfort period. Digestibility coefficients for dry matter, organic matter, neutral detergent fiber, and acid detergent fiber were higher in trial 2 than in trials 1 and 3. No statistical differences were found between trials 1 and 3 for these variables. Rumen passage rate was more rapid in trial 1 than in trials 2 and 3. No difference was observed between trials 2 and 3. These results indicated that exposure to a hot environment can affect digestibility in a time-dependent fashion, suggesting an adaptation of the digestive tract to hot environments.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Effects of extrusion of grain and feeding frequency on rumen fermentation, nutrient digestibility, and milk yield and composition in dairy cows.

The effect of corn extrusion and feeding frequency on ruminal and postruminal digestibility and milk yield was studied in cows fed a high concentrate diet. Four Israeli Holstein cows fitted with rumen and abomasal cannulas were used. The experiment was arranged as a 2 x 2 factorial design, with two diets and two feeding frequencies (two or four meals per day). One diet contained 40% ground corn. In the second diet, half of the ground corn was replaced with extruded corn. Feeding cows the extruded versus ground corn diet decreased ruminal ammonia N and plasma urea N concentrations, increased postruminal digestibility of nonstructural carbohydrates, reduced dry matter intake, decreased yield of milk and milk components, and increased efficiency of milk energy and milk protein synthesis. The inclusion of extruded corn in the diet did not affect ruminal volatile fatty acid. Increasing the feeding frequency reduced the diurnal variation in ruminal pH, ruminal ammonia, and plasma urea, and increased dry matter intake--considerably more in the cows fed ground versus extruded corn--and improved postruminal organic matter, nonstructural carbohydrate, and crude protein digestibility. Total tract digestibility of organic matter and crude protein and milk yield and composition were also increased when cows were fed four versus two meals. Concurrent with the feeding frequency and grain processing effect, an increase in rumen-undegradable protein flow was related to increased digestion of nonstructural carbohydrate postruminally (r = 0.54). We concluded that for cows fed high-starch diets more frequent meals are useful for improving postruminal digestibility and milk yield and composition.

Ammonia↗
PubMed1990

The digestibility of cell-wall polysaccharides from wheat (bran or whole grain), soybean meal, and white lupin meal in cockerels, muscovy ducks, and rats.

The digestibility of nonstarch polysaccharides (NSP) were measured in cockerels. Muscovy ducks, and rats by using four diets where the only sources of NSP were wheat bran (Diet B), whole wheat grain (Diet W), soybean meal (Diet S), or white lupin meal (Diet L). The four diets contained similar amounts of crude protein (24.4%), lipids (5.2%), and NSP (6.9%). The proportions of water-soluble NSP in total NSP were 11.1% (Diet B), 19.7% (Diet W), 8% (Diet S), and 11.5% (Diet L). The NSP contents of feed and excreta were determined by measuring their individual sugars, using gas-liquid chromatography of alditol acetate derivatives. The digestibility values of NSP ranged from 21.9% (Diet W) to 13% (Diet L) for cockerels, from 18.7% (Diet W) to 7.9% (Diet L) for ducks, and from 85.7% (Diet L) to 44.1% (Diet B) for rats. These results suggest that cockerels and ducks were only able to digest the water-soluble fraction of the nonstarch polysaccharides. The pectic polymers, which were major components in water-insoluble NSP of Diets S and L, were digested to a high extent by the rats. The digestible-energy (DE) values, calculated for the birds from the apparent metabolizable-energy values corrected for nitrogen retention (AMEn), were very similar when cockerels and ducks were compared; the differences between bird species did not exceed .23 MJ per kg of dry matter. In all cases, the DE values were higher for rats than for birds. These results suggested that the main factor responsible for the differences in DE values between rats and birds was the ability to digest NSP, which was higher for the rats than for the birds.

Animal Feed↗
PubMed2002

Effect of formulated diet on digestive enzymes of Labeo rohita (Ham.).

Six sets of feeding experiments were carried out using formulated diets containing prawn head waste (PW), chicken intestine waste (CW), banana flower (BF), cauliflower waste (CAU) Dolicos lab lab (DLL) and groundnut leaf (GNL) in four levels of inclusion (15, 30, 45 and 60%) to assess the pattern of distribution and activities of digestive enzymes like cellulase, amylase, maltase, invertase, protease and lipase in the digestive tracts of Labeo rohita fingerlings. A control group of fish was fed with diets containing antibiotics to destroy the digestive tract microflora which may induce digestive functions. In general, the activity of digestive enzymes depended on the amount and type of the ingredients present in the diets ingested by the fish. Test animals showed both endogenous and bacterial cellulase activities which suggests the necessity for including cellulose (plant protein source) as dietary ingredient. Occurrence of higher amount of cellulase in the foregut and amylase in the fore and midgut influenced by DNL and GNL diets revealed the possibility of including less than 40% of the respective ingredients in the diet of rohu. Maltase and invertase were highly influenced by GNL, DLL and BF diets than PW and CW diets. More than 40% inclusion of PW and CW was found to increase protease and lipase secretion in the midgut and hindgut regions. The higher secretion of lipase in the midgut suggested the physiological versatility for lipid digestion in rohu fingerlings.

Amylases↗
PubMed1990

The effect of animal fat and vegetable oil supplementation of feeds of different energy concentration upon the digestibility of nutrients and some blood parameters in rabbits.

The effect of mixed animal fat and sunflower oil supplementation (5%) of a feed of medium (12.02 MJ DE/kg) and low (8.54 MJ DE/kg) energy concentration upon the digestibility of nutrients and on some blood parameters was investigated. The ether-extractable content of feed and faecal samples was determined by diethyl ether extraction (after Soxhlet) and the total (true) fat level was measured by the method of Stoldt (1952), viz. petroleum ether extraction of samples pretreated with 4 N HCl. In the majority of cases the voluntary feed intake decreased after the addition of animal fat or vegetable oil. Mixed animal fat supplementation significantly (by 5 and 11 units) improved the digestibility of the ether extract if added to either of the basal diets. The digestibility of crude fibre and N-free extract increased only in the case of the basal diet of low energy concentration (by 4 and 7 units, respectively). Sunflower oil addition produced changes of the same tendency (9, 9, 28 and 5 units). The digestibility of the crude protein was practically not altered by either supplementation. The total fat content of feed and faecal samples proved to be higher than that of the ether extract, on an average by 27 and 100%, respectively. Consequently, the digestibility coefficients of the total fat are by 10 units lower than those of the ether extract. The DE concentrations, calculated by means of the digestible ether extract or the total fat content, differed significantly only between the basal diets. The addition of mixed animal fat to either of the basal diets increased the blood concentration of total lipids (by 18 and 32%, respectively), while that of sunflower oil did not cause such an alteration. Neither fat nor oil supplementation had an effect on the cholesterol level of the blood plasma. Both the animal fat and the vegetable oil surplus modified the fatty acid composition of blood lipids. It was characteristic of each treatment that the proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acids increased.

Animal Feed↗
PubMed1990

[Study on the clinical usefulness of NCC-ST-439 in cases of digestive tract cancer].

NCC-ST-439 is a monoclonal antibody established from human stomach cancer xenografted nude mice. The values of NCC-ST-439 were measured in 139 cases with various digestive tract cancers and 294 cases with benign digestive tract diseases with the NCC-ST-439 EIA kit (Nihon Kayaku Co., Ltd.), and its clinical usefulness was compared with those of CA19-9 and CEA. The positive rates of NCC-ST-439 in cases of digestive tract cancer were high, i.e., 66.7% for cancer of the bile duct, 58.3% for pancreatic cancer and 52.9% for colorectal cancer. In the benign digestive tract diseases, the overall positive rate seen in case of cholelithiasis and cholangitis, chronic gastritis, benign colorectal diseases and hepatitis, was only 3.7%. The positive rate of NCC-ST-439 was lower than those for CA19-9 and CEA in cases of stomach cancer, colorectal cancer and liver cancer, but it was the same as that of CA19-9 and higher than that of CEA in cases of biliary tract cancer and pancreatic cancer. The false positive rate of NCC-ST-439 in benign diseases of the digestive tract was the lowest among the three markers. With respect to sensitivity, specificity and efficiency, CA19-9 showed the highest sensitivity, but NCC-ST-439 and CEA showed better specificity than CA19-9, and NCC-ST-439 showed the highest efficiency. In combination assays using combinations of NCC-ST-439, CA19-9 and CEA, the positive rates for ST-439 alone were 22.1% for stomach cancer, 52.9% for colorectal cancer, 15.0% for liver cancer and 58.3% for pancreatic cancer, while the combined rates increased to 51.9%, 70.6%, 75.0% and 66.7%, respectively. In an investigation of changes with time in NCC-ST-439 values during chemotherapy of various types of digestive tract cancer, there was a decrease in PR cases, no change in NC cases and a tendency to increase in PD cases. These results suggested that it was possible to apply NCC-ST-439 clinically.

Aged↗
PubMed1989

Fiber digestion and voluntary intake in horses after adaptation to extensive large-colon resection.

Each of 3 digestion trials (3 forage diets) was performed on 2 groups of horses 6 to 12 months after sham operation (group 1; n = 3) or large-colon resection (group 2; n = 5). Diets were alfalfa pellets, alfalfa hay, and grass hay. Feed and fecal analyses were performed to determine apparent digestion of dry matter, organic matter, and crude protein and true digestion of dry matter, organic matter, crude protein, total plant cell wall, hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin. Additional fecal and metabolic variables determined were percentage of fecal water, total fecal water, metabolic organic matter, metabolic crude protein, and metabolic nitrogen. Large-colon resection decreased the digestion of plant cell wall because of decreased digestion of cellulose in alfalfa pellet and grass hay diets, but not in alfalfa hay diet. Insufficient digestible energy and/or protein from grass hay was obtained by horses with colon resection, and significant (P less than 0.05) weight loss was observed. Voluntary intake was significantly (P less than 0.05) increased by horses with colon resection. Of the diets studied, alfalfa hay was the most appropriate forage diet, compared with average grass hay and alfalfa pellet diet, for horses after extensive large-colon resection. Additionally, horses with colon resection may have higher levels of feed intake than do horses without colon resection.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed1989

Relationship between the digestive microflora of the newborn and maternal microflora in rodents as evidenced by a transit marker.

The cutaneous and digestive microflora of the dam, constitute the main sources of bacteria likely to colonize the digestive tract of the newborn. Our objective was to study the conditions (delay, level) in relation to the maternal microflora. Spores of Bacillus stearothermophilus were used as a tracer. They were spread on the mother's udder or given per os to the mother. In our study, we used holoxenic rats and axenic mice. The tracer was then followed in newborn rats and newborn mice. Transfer of the spore from the dam to the digestive tract of the newborn were generally observed very shortly after the contact between the dam and the newborn (2 or 3 h). This transfer requires a minimal concentrations of spores 1.5 x 10(6) spores/g feces and 3 x 10(6) spores/udder for the rat; 10(6) spores/g feces and 1.5 x 10(6) spores/udder for the mouse). Transfer of spores in the digestive tract of neonates is proportional to the level of spores on the udder. But only a hundredth or less of the initial inoculum is transferred. The transfer of spores via the udder or via the maternal feces led to very similar levels of implantation of spores in the digestive tract of neonates. These results emphasize the important role of the maternal fecal and mammary microflora in the colonization of the digestive tract of the newborn.

Animals↗