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PubMed1988

Is immobility of rats in the forced swim test "behavioral despair"?

Rats were forced to swim in a cistern until sinking in order to examine the possible relationship between sinking and immobility which has been reported to reflect "behavioral despair" in the forced swim test. Rats were classified into sinking and non-sinking groups, according to the appearance of sinking behavior over a 2 hr test. The sinking rats showed significantly shorter immobility times during the first 15 min as compared to the non-sinking rats. Therefore, sinking behavior seems to be a sign of emotional behavior such as fear and/or anxiety accompanied by defecation. Discriminant analysis showed that the immobility time during the first 15 min was a prediction of sinking. These findings suggest that the rapidly induced immobility in this forced swim test reflects the possibility of floating behavior in connection with the emotional reaction.

Animals↗
PubMed1990

A computer-aided procedure for measuring swim rotation.

As a rat or mouse swims in a small cylinder, its movements are tracked by an observer using a joystick, and the information is sent to a Macintosh computer. The swimming circle is broken into quadrants. The sequence of quadrants entered and the time spent in each quadrant are recorded as the basic data. From the data set one can extract full or partial turns, clockwise or counterclockwise rotations, total activity, and speed of swimming clockwise and counterclockwise. Two laterality indices, one based on full turns and the other on partial turns, are calculated. Test-retest reliability for rats and mice for 3-minute and 5-minute observation intervals are reported.

Animals↗
PubMed1990

An opiate mechanism involved in conditioned analgesia influences forced swim-induced immobility.

The modulatory effect of conditioned opiate analgesia on immobility during a forced swim situation was studied. Animals submitted to inescapable shock (IS) were exposed 6 days later to a similar or different shock application context and, immediately after, tested in either hot plate test or forced swim test. A conditioned analgesia was observed only on animals submitted to the shock context. This conditioned analgesia was blocked by naloxone administration injected either before IS or before context exposure. In the same way, animals exposed to shock context and immediately forced to swim showed an increase in the immobility time, which was sensitive to naloxone injection before IS as well as before context exposure. These results and additional data referring to naloxone effect on inactivity during IS are discussed in terms of the possible role of endogenous opiate in analogous behavior expressed during different aversive experiences.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

Behavioral effects of isatin on open field activity and immobility in the forced swim test in rats.

Isatin is an endogenous selective inhibitor of monoamine oxidase (MAO) B, related to tribulin, whose activity and excretion in urine is increased during stress and anxiety. A previous study from our laboratory hypothesized that isatin may be a component of an alarm substance that rats secrete in the forced swim test. The present study tested that hypothesis by examining isatin's behavioral effects on open field activity and in the forced swim test. Male rats injected (i.p.) with isatin (0-160 mg/kg) ambulated less in the open field and were more immobile in the forced swim test than controls. These results did not support the hypothesis that alarm substance contains isatin and suggest, instead, that isatin has sedative or anxiolytic activity.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

A comparison of rats and mice in a swimming pool place task and matching to place task: some surprising differences.

An ecological niche that requires competency in water has prepared rats for the swimming pool spatial tasks that they are administered in the laboratory. Their ability to eventually solve spatial tasks in a single trial makes them ideal subjects for evaluating neural contributions to spatial behavior and for addressing many other neuroscience problems. Swimming pool place tasks are also given to mice, but the spatial abilities of the animal has not been evaluated as extensively as have those of rats. In the present paper, place learning in a single place task and a matching to place task is comparatively assessed in groups of rats and mice. The rats were superior to the mice on both problems. Although the mice could learn a single place problem, their acquisition was slower and their asymptotic performance was inferior to that of rats. Mice also did not display one trial learning on the matching to place task as did rats. These species differences in swimming pool place learning are discussed with respect to both methodological considerations and to species differences in preparedness to learn. It is suggested that given the variability of the performance of mice across both strains and laboratories, rat performance could be used to provide a baseline for comparative purposes.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

Hematocrit in oxygen transport and swimming in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss).

The optimal hematocrit (Hctopt) hypothesis was tested by altering Hct (and arterial blood oxygen content, CaO2) between extreme states of anemia and polycythemia (Hct = 8-55%) in the rainbow trout. Since blood viscosity (eta) effects on cardiac output (Q) and O2 transport (TO2) are likely to be greatest when O2 demand and Q are maximal, we challenged fish to swim to their critical swimming velocity (Ucrit) in a swim-tunnel respirometer at 13 degrees C and measured maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), maximum Q(Qmax), and other cardiovascular variables. In addition, experimental temperature was lowered to 5 degrees C to increase eta. Consistent with the Hctopt hypothesis, the decreased CaO2 in anemic (Hct < 22%) fish caused significant reductions in Ucrit and VO2max. In contradiction to the Hctopt hypothesis, and despite an exponential relationship between eta and Hct, maximal TO2 (TO2max) and Ucrit increased with polycythemia up to Hct 55%. Although there was a peak for VO2max, it occurred at an Hct (42%) well above the normocythemic range (23-33%). These results clearly demonstrate that eta is not significant in setting normocythemia in rainbow trout. The novel finding of an Hct-dependent relationship for exercise-induced arterial hypoxemia may be indicative of a diffusion limitation to normocythemia. We suggest that factors involved in setting normocythemia in vertebrates should include diffusion limitations to oxygen transfer in addition to blood viscosity and oxygen transport constraints.

Anemia↗
PubMed1988

Prenatal dinocap exposure alters swimming behavior in mice due to complete otolith agenesis in the inner ear.

Exposure to the fungicide dinocap during gestation produces behavioral abnormalities in the house mouse that are not apparent at birth but become obvious at weaning. Pregnant mice (CD-1) were exposed on Days 7 to 16 of gestation to dinocap at 0, 6, 12, or 25 mg/kg/day and the postnatal behavioral development of the offspring was assessed. Torticollis (head-tilting) appears in the treated offspring at 3 weeks of age (4.4% at 12 and 25.3% at 25 mg/kg/day) and, during a test of swimming ability, many of the mice (6.8% at 12 and 47.2% at 25 mg/kg/day) sink below the surface or are unstable and swim on their side in the water. These behavioral abnormalities are the result of agenesis of the otoliths in the inner ears. These were the only developmental defects noted in the 12 mg/kg/day dosage group. In this group 4.4% of the mice displayed torticollis, 9.2% did not swim normally, 19% were missing one or more whole otoliths (7.7% were missing all four otoliths), and partial agenesis of the crystalline material was seen in an additional 11.6% of the mice. The frequency of behavioral and inner ear defects increased in the higher dosage group, but the order of sensitivity of the effects did not change.

Animals↗
PubMed1993

Effect of age and of swimming-induced stress on the phagocytic capacity of peritoneal macrophages from mice.

The effect of age and physical activity stress (swimming until exhaustion) on the phagocytic capacity of the peritoneal macrophages was studied in young (12 +/- 4-week-old) and old (68 +/- 6-week-old) BALB/c mice. The attachment and ingestion of opsonized Candida albicans as well as the ingestion of inert particles (latex beads) by these cells was compared between young and old animals at rest. The results show that phagocytosis of peritoneal macrophages is not impaired in old mice. With respect to the effect of physical activity stress, we evaluated the phagocytic capacity both of C. albicans and of latex beads before and immediately after swimming until exhaustion, and in the absence or presence of a previous period (1 month) of training. The results indicate that the phagocytic capacity of peritoneal macrophages is increased after swimming until exhaustion, both with and without previous adaptation or training, and in both young and old mice.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed1996

Age-related responses of right ventricle in swim-trained rats: changes in lactate and pyruvate contents and lactate dehydrogenase activity.

Age related changes in carbohydrate substrates such as, glucose, glycogen, pyruvic acid and lactic acid and the activity of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and LDH isoenzyme profile were evaluated in the right ventricle (RV) of swim-trained rats of 6- (adult), 12- (middle-aged) and 18- (old) months-of-age. Moderate hypertrophy was seen in the heart and RV in response to training in all age groups with the 12 months exhibiting a significant increase. While resting levels of pyruvate and glucose in the RV showed small elevations in adult and middle-aged rats, lactic acid showed reductions in all ages. Glycogen supercompensation was seen in the RV of trained animals. These age-related alterations in RV were associated with decreases in blood lactic acid and glucose in the trained rats belonging to all ages. Total protein of the RV decreased with age and exercise increased the content. Total LDH and M4-LDH activities decreased with age. However, training increased their activities in all ages. These changes in the RV suggests that swimming activity produces adaptations (e.g. increased LDH and M4) in all age groups. Considering the degree of adaptations, it can be suggested that adult and middle-aged are suitable for initiating swim-training programs, but not in old age.

Aging↗
PubMed1988

Effect of olfactory bulbectomy and chronic amitryptiline treatment in rats. 3H-imipramine binding and behavioral analysis by swimming and open field tests.

An 'animal model' of depression, based on bulbectomy, followed by chronic treatment with amitryptiline was used in rats. In the synaptosomal membranes of the cerebral cortex plus hippocampus, the number of binding sites for 3H-imipramine increased significantly when bulbectomy was associated with the antidepressant. In the bulbectomized rats the tendency was toward a decrease in binding. The treatment with 0.2% Triton X-100 of the membranes revealed a large increase in postsynaptic sites in the bulbectomized treated rats. The behavioral parameters analyzed by the swimming with a water wheel and the open field test revealed a series of differences in the various groups of rats, with respect to handling, bulbectomy and antidepressant treatment. Handling resulted in an increase in swimming time in controls, while bulbectomy reduced this parameter. In both the swimming and open fields tests, chronic bulbectomy reduces the motility of the rat. In control rats chronic amitryptiline increases locomotion and exploratory activity, a behavioral effect that is even more prominent in bulbectomized treated rats.

Amitriptyline↗
PubMed1989

Training-dependent decay in performance produced by the neuroleptic cis(Z)-flupentixol on spatial navigation by rats in a swimming pool.

Rats were trained on place or cue spatial navigation tasks in a swimming pool and then given the neuroleptic, alpha-flupentixol. Initial experiments showed that regardless of testing schedule, including blocks of trials given concurrently or separated by 7 or 30 days, drugged rats showed a trial-by-trial decay in latency and accuracy of responding although they continued to swim. The rate of decay increased with increases in drug dosage. Further experiments showed that: 1) Performance decay was specifically related to conditioned components of the test environment. Animals required to swim in a different test, or to struggle, showed less decay than rats exposed to the test platform only or required to perform all aspects of the task. 2) Decay was not due to nonspecific effects of neuroleptic treatment because rats injected and replaced in their home cage, and then subsequently reinjected and tested performed like rats treated and tested for the first time. 3) A trial-dependent decay of performance was also obtained in hippocampectomized and decorticate rats, suggesting that at least part of the major action of the drug is on subcortical systems. The results are discussed with respect to hypotheses of neuroleptic action and with respect to their possible relevance to experience-dependent changes in animal analogues of Parkinson's disease. Finally, it is suggested that behavior may be organized in subsystems, which when active, become selectively sensitive to neuroleptics.

Animals↗
PubMed1989

Opposite effects of diazepam and beta-CCE on immobility and straw-climbing behavior of rats in a modified forced-swim test.

The present study was undertaken to examine how two ligands of the benzodiazepine receptor, which possess anxiolytic or anxiogenic actions, affect both the duration of immobility and the incidence of straw-climbing behavior in rats in a modified forced-swim test. Rats were injected IP with either vehicle, diazepam (0.5, 1, 5 mg/kg), or beta-carboline-3-carboxylic acid ethyl ester (beta-CCE; 0.5, 1, 2, 5 mg/kg), or a combination of diazepam at 1 mg/kg and beta-CCE at 2 mg/kg. In addition, Ro 15-1788 (1 mg/kg), a specific benzodiazepine antagonist, was injected IP 20 min after diazepam injection and immediately after beta-CCE injection, respectively. In the first 5-min period of the forced-swim test, diazepam at 5 mg/kg prolonged the duration of immobility, whereas beta-CCE at 1, 2 and 5 mg/kg reduced its duration. Immediately after the first 5-min test period, 4 straws were suspended above the surface of the water, and the number of straw-climbing attempts and the duration of immobility were measured for a subsequent 5-min test period. Straw-suspension elicited straw-climbing behavior in forced swimming rats, resulting in a shortening of the duration of immobility in this period. All doses of diazepam inhibited straw-climbing attempts and prolonged the duration of immobility in a dose-dependent manner. beta-CCE at 1 or 2 mg/kg enhanced straw-climbing attempts, but did not significantly affect the duration of immobility. Furthermore, the combined administration of diazepam and beta-CCE antagonized the respective drug effects on the duration of immobility and the number of straw-climbing attempts.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Animals↗
PubMed1990

Potentiation of swim analgesia by D-amino acids in mice is genotype dependent.

The effect of combined treatment with 125 mg/kg of D-phenylalanine plus 125 mg/kg of D-leucine (IP) on magnitude and duration of analgesia caused by 3 min swim at 20 degrees C was studied in mouse lines selectively bred for 20 generations toward high and low level of stress-induced analgesia. The D-amino acids administered 30 min prior to swimming increased postswim tail-flick latencies and prolonged antinociception more in the high analgesia line (HA) than in concomitantly bred unselected controls, but were not effective in the low analgesia line (LA). The potentiation of swim analgesia by D-amino acids was prevented by simultaneous administration of 1 mg/kg of naloxone hydrochloride which, given alone, antagonized the analgesia more in the HA line than in controls, but not in the LA line. The results are interpreted in terms of genetic differentiation of opioidergic transmission in the selectively bred mouse lines.

Amino Acids↗
PubMed1992

Neonatal treatment with clomipramine increased immobility in the forced swim test: an attribute of animal models of depression.

The forced swimming test in rats has been identified as a suitable model for detecting antidepressant activity of several drugs regardless of their mode of action. On the other hand, a number of animal models of human endogenous depression have been proposed. Recently, it has been reported that perinatal administration of clomipramine in rats elicits behavioral changes in adulthood that resemble human endogenous depression. In the present study, we showed that in this new animal model of depression immobility was increased when animals were submitted to the forced swimming test. This finding supports the notion that the amount of immobility during the forced swimming test is directly proportional to a depressive state in the rat.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Corticosterone influences forced swim-induced immobility.

The effect of corticosterone (CS) synthesis inhibition with metyrapone-a blocker of the 11 beta-hydroxylase (150 mg/kg IP)-on immobility time during the forced swim test was recorded. Immobility time was measured during a 15-min forced swim (test). Twenty-four hours later rats were subjected to an additional 5 min forced swim (retest). In one experiment, metyrapone or vehicle was administered 3 h before the initial test, while CS (0, 5, 10, or 20 mg/kg SC) was administered 1 h prior to the initial test. Metyrapone significantly reduced immobility time during both test and retest. This effect was reverted in a dose-dependent fashion by CS. In a second experiment, animals exposed to the initial test 24 h before were injected with metyrapone or vehicle 3 h before the retest, while CS (0, 10, or 20 mg/kg SC) was administered 1 h prior the retest. Metyrapone, administered before the retest, reduced immobility time and CS partially reverted metyrapone effect. In another group of animals, serum CS concentrations were evaluated before and after test and retest. In vehicle groups, the high immobility time during test and retest was associated with high CS serum concentrations poststress. In animals receiving metyrapone prior to the initial test, the reduced immobility time was related to low levels of CS after the test and an attenuated secretion following the retest. Moreover, CS (20 mg/kg) and metyrapone+CS groups had high CS levels before the test, which remained high 2 h after the test, although after the retest, both groups showed a pattern of CS secretion similar to that observed in vehicle animals.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Animals↗
PubMed1996

Effects of moclobemide on forced-swimming stress and brain monoamine levels in mice.

Moclobemide [Ro 11-1163, p-chloro-N-(2-morpholinoethyl)benzamide, AURORIX] is known as an antidepressant and a reversible inhibitor of type A monoamine oxidase. In the present study, a forced swimming test was applied to mice to evaluate behavioral and neurochemical effects of this drug. During forced swimming posture of immobility, a typical behavioral change, was observed, and biochemical analysis of the brain revealed significant changes in the monoamine levels. The norepinephrine concentration was reduced, while that of its product was increased, indicating increase in norepinephrine turnover. The stress increased the levels of dopamine, serotonin, and their metabolites. Moclobemide significantly improved the immobility elicited by the test, and it could prevent the changes in the turnover of norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin induced by the stress. These results suggest that moclobemide may improve the behavioral changes induced by the forced swimming through its effects on monoamine metabolism.

Animals↗
PubMed1990

Correlations between behavior of mice in Porsolt's swim test and in tests of anxiety, locomotion, and exploration.

This study examined whether the behavior of male NIH Swiss mice in a putative animal model of depression, Porsolt's swim test, is related to that in other behavioral tests. The other tests were the plus-maze test of anxiety, the holeboard test of exploration and locomotor activity, and a test of seizure threshold to bicuculline. The immobility of the mice in the swim test did not correlate with their behavior in any of the other tests used. The only significant correlations found occurred between individual measures in the holeboard and plus-maze tests. The data suggest that immobility in the swim test is not related to behavior in the tests of anxiety, directed exploration, locomotor activity, or seizure threshold.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Rotational swimming tendencies in the dolphin (Tursiops truncatus).

Anecdotal evidence suggests that dolphins placed in a pool exhibit stereotypic swimming in circles. The present study confirmed these observations in a sample of thirteen dolphins. The majority of dolphins (84.6%) showed highly consistent directional swimming in counterclockwise circles. The latter directionality held throughout the circadian cycle and resisted environmental manipulations. Only social interaction was capable of altering the directionality of circumnavigation. The consistency of unidirectional swimming is considered paradoxical in view of the existing evidence regarding the alternating of hemispheric activity in sleeping dolphins.

Animals↗