Cue selection in verbal discrimination learning of retarded subjects.
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Adolescent↗
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A connectionist approach to making the predictability of English orthography explicit to at-risk beginning readers: evidence for alternative, effective strategies.
A case is made (and illustrated with empirical data with children) for connectionist models that are not only computationally explicit but also instructionally explicit. First-graders (N = 128) at the bottom of their classes in reading (average 11.5 percentile on nationally normed tests) participated in a 3-layer intervention. In the first layer, kept constant for all treatment groups, the alphabet principle was taught, making functional spelling units and alternations explicit. In the second layer, which varied systematically across treatment groups, children received different kinds of tutor modeling in learning a set of words of varying spelling-sound predictability, using different connections between printed and spoken words, singly or in combination. In the third layer, also kept constant, children read and discussed illustrated books. Over the 4-month, 24-lesson intervention, all 7 treatment groups in the second layer improved more in word-specific learning than a contact control group that received phonological and orthographic awareness training without explicit instruction on orthographic-phonological connections. Of these 7, only 3 kinds of explicit modeling (whole word, letter-phoneme, and combined whole word and letter-phoneme) resulted in greater transfer to untrained words than the contact control or the other 4 kinds of explicit modeling. Results are discussed in reference to the controversy over whether dual route or connectionist models best account for the acquisition of reading.
Child↗
Development and transfer of automatic processing.
Two studies were performed to examine the role of consistency in the development and transfer of automatic processing. Ss performed a rule-based memory search task in which they compared multidimensional probes to 1, 2, or 3 memory set rules. Results indicated that learning occurred in the absence of consistency at lower levels of task description (e.g., mapping of individual task components to responses) as long as higher level consistencies existed in the task (e.g., consistent) mapping of task components to a conceptual framework). However, the asymptotic level of this learning was modulated by the consistency with which conjunctions of task components were mapped to decisions. High positive transfer was obtained despite replacement of the exemplars of the memory set rules, suggesting that learning was not specific to the items encountered during training. On the other hand, the magnitude of positive transfer was reduced when the rules were replaced, suggesting that most of the learning took place at the level of specific rules. Some evidence was also obtained for more general process-based learning. Results are discussed in terms of their implications for models of learning and transfer.
Adolescent↗
Role of dorsomedial thalamic nucleus and piriform cortex in processing olfactory information.
Four experiments were conducted to characterize the role of primary and secondary olfactory projection areas (piriform cortex and dorsomedial thalamic nucleus (DMN] in olfactory information processing. Rats had to learn to discriminate between odors that were simultaneously released from different arms of an automated olfactory maze. When standard training conditions were used, damage of the DMN severely impaired both preoperatively trained and naive animals in acquiring an odor discrimination set (i.e. in most problems no learning was demonstrated). An additional group of DMN animals that received 4 times the standard amount of daily trials was unable to acquire the first two problems but successfully solved the third and all subsequent discriminations. Analysis of performance patterns suggested that destruction of the DMN initially leads to a strong procedural impairment that can be overcome by extensive training. After solving the third problem the animals with DMN damage required much less training to reach the learning criterion but generally made more errors than controls. Transfer of savings rarely occurred when a problem was repeated. Whether this secondary learning deficit observed in later discriminations is due to a specific effect of the lesion on the encoding of olfactory cues and thus on memory formation, or due to a disturbance in the regulation of emotional factors such as motivation, arousal, and attention is discussed. Lesions of the thalamus that spared the DMN had no effect on learning or retention of olfactory discriminations. Animals with ablations of the piriform cortex only acquired odor discriminations if they had been trained in the olfactory maze before the lesion. Moreover, their performance depended on the odor quality: they had great difficulty learning complex cues consisting of several odorants and learned simple odors virtually identical to control rats. The results indicate that an intact piriform cortex is needed to acquire the procedures involved to perform an olfactory discrimination task as well as to build neural representations of olfactory cues.
Animals↗
Preexposure effects on infant learning and memory.
The effect of passively exposing infants to visual information in a sensory preconditioning paradigm was assessed in five experiments with seventy-eight 6-month-olds. In the basic paradigm, infants were simultaneously exposed to two contexts (S1 and S2), trained in one of them (S1), and tested in the other (S2). Infants learned an association between S1 and S2 and exhibited transfer to S2 after preexposures of 1 hr/day for 1 week but not after 2 min or 1 hr on a single occasion. When S1 was the focal cue, however, infants transferred responding after a single preexposure lasting only 2 min. Extended preexposure also produced learned irrelevance, biasing subsequent selective attention, but there was no evidence of latent inhibition. These findings demonstrate that young infants pick up fairly sophisticated information about specific stimuli in their visual surround and the relationships between them merely as a result of passive observation, without explicitly being trained to do so. Moreover, infants may not express this knowledge for several days, until finally given an opportunity to do so. Sensory preconditioning may be an instance of "unitization"-a special type of infantile learning that enables immature organisms to acquire some associations more rapidly than adults.
Adult↗
Is the contextual interference effect generalizable to computer games?
The benefits of learning multiple tasks under an unstructured practice schedule have been extensively demonstrated in the laboratory. The purpose of the present study was to test contextual interference effects in a nonlaboratory setting using computer games as tasks. Undergraduate kinesiology and sport management majors (N = 19) played a computer game simulating the events of the winter Olympics. Participants were randomly assigned to either a Blocked or Random practice schedule, practicing 36 trials of three events. Delayed retention and transfer tests were performed after a 48-hr. retention interval. The dependent variable was time to complete an event. During transfer, participants in the Random schedule (M = 248 sec.) were significantly faster than Blocked (M = 263 sec.) participants. Results support and extend previous contextual interference findings. Transfer was facilitated for participants who learned the events in a Random practice order. Results are discussed in terms of the influence of task characteristics on learning.
Computers↗
Transfer of communication skills training from workshop to workplace: the impact of clinical supervision.
OBJECTIVE: Recent studies have recognised that the communication skills learned in the training environment are not always transferred back into the clinical setting. This paper reports a study which investigated the potential of clinical supervision in enhancing the transfer process. METHODS: A randomised controlled trial was conducted involving 61 clinical nurse specialists. All attended a 3-day communication skills training workshop. Twenty-nine were then randomised to 4 weeks of clinical supervision, aimed at facilitating transfer of newly acquired skills into practice. Assessments, using real and simulated patients, were carried out before the course, immediately after the supervision period and 3 months later. Interviews were rated objectively using the Medical Interview Aural Rating Scale (MIARS) to assess nurses' ability to use key skills, respond to patient cues and identify patient concerns. RESULTS: Assessments with simulated patients showed that the training programme was extremely effective in changing competence in all three key areas. However, only those who experienced supervision showed any evidence of transfer. Improvements were found in the supervised groups' use of open questions, negotiation and psychological exploration. Whilst neither group facilitated more disclosure of cues or concerns, those in the experimental group responded more effectively to the cues disclosed, reduced their distancing behaviour and increasing their exploration of cues. CONCLUSIONS: The study has shown that whilst training enhances skills, without intervention, it may have little effect on clinical practice. The potential role of clinical supervision as one way of enhancing the clinical effectiveness of communication skills training programmes has been demonstrated. PRACTISE IMPLICATIONS: This study raises questions about the effectiveness of training programmes which do not incorporate a transfer element, and provides evidence to support the need for clinical supervision for clinical nurse specialist.
Adult↗
Brain-cell protein synthesis specifically related to learning.
The study takes up the problem whether synthesis of certain protein fractions in nerve cells of the hippocampus in rats during the transfer of handedness may be specific for this learning process. Electrophoretic separation of protein was carried out on polyacrylamide gels at the microscale. The investigation encompasses the brain-specific, acidic protein S100 and two protein fractions moving close to the S100 protein during electrophoresis. The protein synthesis was studied during one month of intermittent training of the animals. The temporal link between behavior and an increase in the synthesis of nerve-cell protein indicates that the protein response is specific for the processes occurring in the hippocampus during learning.
Animals↗
Distinct neural systems underlie learning visuomotor and spatial representations of motor skills.
Motor skill learning depends upon acquiring knowledge about multiple features of sequential behaviors, including their visuomotor and spatial properties. To investigate the neural systems that distinguish these representations, we carried out functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) as healthy adults learned to type sequences on a novel keyboard. On the initial training day, learning-related changes in brain activation were found in distributed cortical regions, only a subset of which correlated with improvements in movement time (MT), suggesting their preeminence in controlling movements online. Subjects received extended training on the sequences during the ensuing week, after which they returned to the scanner for another imaging session. Relative to performance at the end of the first training day, continued plasticity was most striking in the inferior parietal cortex and new areas of plasticity were uncovered in the caudate and cerebellum. Plasticity in these regions correlated with reaction time (RT), suggesting their role in planning sequences before movement onset. Two transfer conditions probed for "what" subjects learned. The probe for visuomotor learning produced increased activation in visual analysis (left inferior visual cortex) and advance planning (left caudate) systems. The probe for spatial learning produced increased activation in visuomotor-transformation (left dorsal visual pathway) and retrieval (left precuneus) systems. Increased activity in all of these regions correlated with increased RT, but not MT, indicating that both transfer conditions interfered with the neural representation of plans for the sequences, but not processes that controlled their implementation. These findings demonstrated that neuroanatomically dissociable systems support the acquisition of visuomotor and spatial representations of actions.
Adolescent↗
IMPROVEMENT OF VISUAL AND TACTUAL FORM DISCRIMINATION.
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Child↗
Facilitating patient learning during medical rehabilitation: a research agenda.
Although patient learning is widely acknowledged to be an integral part of many medical rehabilitation practices, it has been the subject of little systematic research. A workshop conducted August 18 to 19, 1997, was organized by the National Center for Medical Rehabilitation Research (National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health) and several co-sponsoring organizations to formulate recommendations concerning learning-oriented rehabilitation practices. The recommendations and their supporting rationale are summarized in the topic areas of motor learning and control, cognitive learning, recovery of functioning, generalization and transfer of training, and applications for patients with strokes, traumatic brain injury, amputations, and infants and children.
Amputation, Surgical↗
Variation in the amount of irrelevant cues in training and test conditions and the effect upon transfer.
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Adolescent↗
Contextual variability and transfer of discrimination.
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Animals↗
Absence of transfer in a family of similar tasks.
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Adolescent↗
Does memory transfer imply limits on human knowledge?
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Animals↗
Wiener filter estimation of transfer functions.
The use of a Wiener filter estimate for the linear transfer function can significantly improve the description of behavioral dynamics. This report presents a two-pass, Monte-Carlo-based algorithm that is well suited to repeated-trials local average measurements. The Wiener filter transfer functions strongly suppress noise artifacts as well as allow reliable transfer function determination under a much wider class of reinforcement schedules. Implications of expanding the possible form of experimental design are considered along with improvements in the fidelity of resulting predictions.
Animals↗
Human somatic gene therapy: progress and problems.
Whilst the potential of gene therapy is considerable, current applications have been restricted by the limitations of available vectors. As yet, no vector is able to produce the desired safe, targeted and efficient transfer of genetic material with regulation of the new gene in the targeted cell. Notwithstanding these limitations, more than 65 clinical gene transfer protocols have been approved in the US. The majority of these are open to patients with malignant disease, in whom the risk:benefit ratio is most appropriate. Current progress and problems in gene transfer are illustrated by reference to gene transfer into haemopoietic stem cells (HSC), an area that has attracted particular attention, both because of the logistic advantages of these cells and because of the wide range of pathologies that may be corrected in the HSC itself or in its progeny. Because of the low efficiency of transfer into HSC, initial studies have involved transfer of marker genes to determine the origin of relapse after autologous bone marrow transplantation and to learn more about the conditions that enhance gene transfer and expression in haemopoietic tissue. Information gained from these studies is already guiding the practice of autologous and allogeneic marrow transplantation and has contributed to the development of gene therapy protocols for the treatment of malignant disease, immune deficiency syndromes and lysosomal storage disorders. Over the next decade, as the technology of gene transfer advances, many further clinical applications of the approach will become evident.
Genetic Therapy↗
Training with an upper-limb prosthetic simulator to enhance transfer of skill across limbs.
OBJECTIVE: To examine what effect bilateral transfer of movement across limbs may have in a person's ability to learn use of an upper-limb prosthetic simulator. DESIGN: Randomized trial. SETTING: University laboratory. PARTICIPANTS: Able-bodied subjects randomly assigned to 1 of 3 groups. INTERVENTIONS: Subjects performed 3 different tasks that required manipulation of objects with the simulator. Group 1 practiced with the simulator on the preferred limb and then transferred it to the nonpreferred limb; group 2 practiced with the simulator on the nonpreferred limb and then transferred it to the preferred limb; group 3 was a control group. Groups 1 and 2 underwent pretest trials, acquisition practice, posttest trials, and a 24-hour retention test; the control group followed the same design with the exception of acquisition practice. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Elapsed time (1) from a signal to move until movement began (initiation time) and (2) from the beginning of movement to task completion (movement time). RESULTS: Compared with the controls, groups 1 and 2 significantly reduced initiation time across all tasks from pretest to posttest (P=.003) and from pretest to retention test (P=.029). Groups 1 and 2 did not differ from each other. Movement time did not differ among the groups in the posttest. However, groups 1 and 2 significantly (P=.026) reduced movement time across all tasks from pretest to retention test compared with the control group. Groups 1 and 2 did not differ from each other. CONCLUSION: The effects of bilateral transfer were evident for initiation time immediately on transfer, and this learning effect persisted to the retention test. The ability to execute movement, represented by movement time, occurred after consolidation of learning was complete. Cross-limb training with a prosthetic simulator may be useful for persons with recent unilateral upper-extremity amputation who are learning to use a prosthesis.
Adult↗