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PubMed1980

The behavioral and social sciences.

In the social sciences, as in other sciences, progress is often placed by advances in observational techniques and instruments. This article reviews some of the recent technical progress in the social sciences ans then discusses three substantive frontier areas that are particularly exciting at present: evolutionary theory, especially in relation to sociobiology, the theory of human rational choice, and the newly christened discipline of cognitive science. All three claim to provide explanations for broad areas of human behavior.

Behavior↗
PubMed2006

Reflections on the disciplinary gulf between the natural and social sciences.

The general purpose of this essay is to explore key features of the disciplinary gulf between the natural and social sciences, and, in particular, differences in fundamental assumptions concerning the nature and purpose of knowledge. The essay contrasts the claims of the natural sciences to objectivity and universality with those of the social sciences, especially the qualitative social sciences, to the historical and cultural contingency of knowledge. It examines the ways in which the use of two 'key words' - 'expertise' and 'responsibility'--serves to maintain the disciplinary gulf by reinforcing assumptions concerning the neutrality and technical nature of scientific knowledge and how those concepts marginalize social and ethical dimensions to create a politically influential hierarchy of knowledge claims.

Humans↗
PubMed2002

Yes, no, or perhaps: reflections on Swedish human science nursing research development.

This article attempts to describe and analyze whether Swedish nursing research development belongs in a human science perspective. Traditionally, nursing in Sweden has been taught and practiced as a medical science, however another worldview seems to characterize Swedish nursing research today. This trend was identified through a study of the latest Swedish theoretical developments, in comparison with different international standpoints and views on the human science perspective. The conclusion is that Swedish nursing research is developing toward, and perhaps belongs in, a human science nursing perspective.

Humans↗
PubMed1997

What should biomedical sciences education in dental schools achieve?

Education for the first professional degree in dentistry is intended to produce graduates capable of offering a wide range of high quality dental services to the general public. More than that, it is expected that graduates will be firmly grounded in the scientific basis for their professional practices and be equipped to evaluate critically and integrate selectively new scientific findings that emerge during their professional lifetimes. In addition, they are expected to be able to work effectively with diverse patient populations and to conduct their practices with a high level of sensitivity to the ethical and psychosocial dimensions of patient care. Indiana University School of Dentistry has undergone a process of curriculum reform that has yielded a new first professional degree program. Its hallmarks are large, multidisciplinary courses (seven courses in the first two years) that are taught using a variety of strategies including problem-based learning in small groups as well as lectures. The biomedical sciences curriculum is concept-based. Students will demonstrate their understanding of science concepts and methods by applying them to the solution of research and health care problems. Biomedical sciences will be taught at a level that will provide a comprehensive understanding of the functioning of the human body in health and disease, allow students to assimilate the coming revolution in molecular medicine, and selectively use new diagnostics, preventives, and therapeutics that evolve as molecular biological technologies yield solutions to current medical and dental problems. Using the biomedical sciences curriculum as a vehicle, we will also achieve the goal of training dentists as critical thinkers, problem solvers, lifelong learners, and ethical practitioners, skillful in peer and self-evaluation, and cognizant of the psychosocial as well as biomedical perspective of health and disease.

Biological Science Disciplines↗
PubMed2002

[Visualization between popularity and scientific practice: new perspectives for the history of medicine, science, and technology].

The paper investigates how visual resources can be fruitfully used to study the history of science, medicine, and technology from a practical point of view. Two new international and interdisciplinary trends within recent historiography are reviewed: the history of visualisation and the history of popularisation. The results of both trends need to be combined in order to understand the ways in which images of science have been used to communicate science from its place of production within the laboratory to its users within the wider society. From the proposed perspective, visual representations of science (i.e. portraits, images of scientific instruments, measurement results and abstractions) are discussed as a distinct medium in which knowledge producers have transmitted and transformed their findings to the acquirers of knowledge. The paper introduces the wider historiographical framework for a discussion of the following four papers published in this issue of NTM.

Audiovisual Aids↗
PubMed2005

Community science: creating an alternative place to stand?

This article comments on two emerging views of community psychology's approaches to the use of research for responding to social problems in contemporary community contexts--(a) the formation of a new field of community science, or (b) the updating of community psychology research traditions. If community science is to become established as a field related to community psychology, its proponents will need to agree upon conventions of epistemology, foci of interest, methods, and standards by which its work can be judged so that it can be distinguished from other human sciences. These articles provide early sketches for what community science might be. However, as noted in this commentary, we need to heed signs of concern about community psychology's continued relevance in public discourse regarding the analysis of and responses to social problems. While this special issue offers some promising responses to the concern of what the field can contribute, the field would be well served if we broaden our dialogue about a renewal of community psychology's commitment to social justice and the need for its perspectives in the practice of research that seeks to address community-based issues in the early 21st century.

Community Mental Health Services↗
PubMed2006

National Workshop on Astrobiology: the life science involvement of AAS-I Laben.

The search for traces of past and present life is a complex and multidisciplinary research activity involving several scientific heritages and a specific industrial ability for planetary exploration. Laben was established in 1958 to design and manufacture electronic instruments for research in nuclear physics. In the mid 2004 the company was merged with Alenia Spazio. It is now part of Alcatel Alenia Space, a French Italian joint venture. Alcatel Alenia Space Italia SpA is a Finmeccanica Company. Currently the plant of Vimodrone provides a wide heritage in life science oriented to space application. The experience in Space Life Science is consolidated in the following research areas: (1) Physiology: Mouse models related to studies on human physiology Human neuroscience research and dosimetry (2) Animal Adaptation and Behaviour: mice behaviour related to stabling stress (3) Developmental Biology: aquatic microorganisms cultivation (4) Cell culture & Biotechnology: Protein crystal growth General purpose Multiwell Next Biotechnology studies and development: Bio reactor, mainly oriented to tissue engineering Microsensor for tissue control (organ replacement) Multiwell for adherent cell culture or for automated biosensor based on cell culture Experiment Container for organic systems Experiment Container for small animals Instrumentation based on fluorescent Biosensors Sensors for Life science experiments for Biopan capsule and Space Vehicle Ray Shielding Materials Random Positioning Machine specialisation (Support ground equipment) The biological features of this heritage is at disposal for the exobiology multi science. The involvement of industries, from the beginning of the exobiology projects, allows a cost effective technologies closed loop development between Research Centres, Principal Investigators and industry.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

The wisdom of nature in integrating science, ethics and the arts.

This paper deals with an approach to the integration of science (with technology and economics), ethics (with religion and mysticism), the arts (aesthetics) and Nature, in order to establish a world-view based on holistic, evolutionary ethics that could help with problem solving. The author suggests that this integration is possible with the aid of "Nature's wisdom" which is mirrored in the macroscopic pattern of the ecosphere. The corresponding eco-principles represent the basis for unifying soft and hard sciences resulting in "deep sciences". Deduction and induction will remain the methodology for deep sciences and will include conventional experiments and aesthetic and sentient experiences. Perception becomes the decisive factor with the senses as operators for the building of consciousness through the subconscious. In this paper, an attempt at integrating the concepts of the "true", the "right" and the "beautiful" with the aid of Nature's wisdom is explained in more detail along with consequences.

Art↗
PubMed2004

Scientific information and uncertainty: challenges for the use of science in policymaking.

Science can reinforce the healthy aspects of the politics of the policy process, to identify and further the public interest by discrediting policy options serving only special interests and helping to select among "science-confident" and "hedging" options. To do so, scientists must learn how to manage and communicate the degree of uncertainty in scientific understanding and prediction, lest uncertainty be manipulated to discredit science or to justify inaction. For natural resource and environmental policy, the institutional interests of government agencies, as well as private interests, pose challenges of suppression, over-simplification, or distortion of scientific information. Scientists can combat these maneuvers, but must also look inward to ensure that their own special interests do not undermine the usefulness of science.

Policy Making↗
PubMed2006

On teaching computer ethics within a computer science department.

The author has surveyed a quarter of the accredited undergraduate computer science programs in the United States. More than half of these programs offer a 'social and ethical implications of computing' course taught by a computer science faculty member, and there appears to be a trend toward teaching ethics classes within computer science departments. Although the decision to create an 'in house' computer ethics course may sometimes be a pragmatic response to pressure from the accreditation agency, this paper argues that teaching ethics within a computer science department can provide students and faculty members with numerous benefits. The paper lists topics that can be covered in a computer ethics course and offers some practical suggestions for making the course successful.

Computers↗
PubMed1995

NASA science utilization plans for the Space Station.

The Mir-1 and International Space Station Alpha capabilities present the science community with unique long duration platforms to conduct a wide range of scientific research in the microgravity and life sciences as well as in the observational sciences, NASA is developing plans to use the capabilities of Mir and Space Station as they emerge during the development of the orbital program. In both cases the planned science utilization programs take advantage of the volume, crew, power, microgravity and logistics resupply unique to each phase. The paper will present these utilization plans in the context of an evolving scientific program.

Animals↗
PubMed1982

The Rockefeller Foundation, the China Foundation, and the development of modern science in China.

Two powerful foundations, with interlocking directorates, were the most important media for transmitting American science to China and for making its development possible: In the 1920s and 1930s, the Rockefeller Foundation's China Medical Board and the China Foundation for the Promotion of Education and Culture recognized that transmission and development required much more than the transplantation of whole scientific institutions. This essay shows that, in their most mature form, the foundations' strategies were informed by a rational and coherent set of policies. Their premise was that the practice and development of advanced scientific medicine and bio-medical or natural scientific research all require an infrastructure of education, communication, physical plant, and equipment. This infrastructure did not exist before the foundations began to foster it in China. In this essay the foundations' China policies are outlined and detailed examples are given to show they built the science infrastructure amidst debate over the appropriateness of the dominant 'Johns Hopkins' institutional model and the norm of 'pure science'. In China, the 'Hopkins' model for medical training and practice featured a combination of clinical practice with sophisticated scientific laboratory research. This model and the 'pure science' norm were seriously challenged by the political and economic exigencies of the 1930s.

China↗
PubMed1982

The contribution of social science to international health training.

Today the comprehensive scope of many international health programs calls for personnel--planners, educators, researchers, and practitioners--trained in a wide range of health related areas. This article explores the contributions which social science knowledge and skills can make to such training. First, it documents the growing importance of social science in international health and delineates several topical areas--ecological, political-economic, socio-cultural, and organizational--where a social science perspective can be particularly useful. Next, it discusses strategies for developing a curriculum that will integrate relevant social science material into health care training. These include the selection of appropriate training staff and the development of competency-based curricula based upon actual work situations. Finally, the article describes specific 'experiential' training techniques which can be employed in the classroom as well as in the field to achieve program objectives.

Curriculum↗
PubMed1983

Behavioral science training in family practice residency education: a first evaluation.

Although behavioral science training is an essential component of family practice residency education, there have been few evaluations of its effects. In this study, selected behaviors of senior residents and their patients in two different family practice residency programs were compared. One program emphasized behavioral science, the other did not. Residents in the more behaviorally oriented program had more positive attitudes toward both social factors in illness and the importance of a warm physician-patient relationship. In addition, these residents claimed to know more about non-pharmacologic treatments for depression and anxiety and felt more confident in their ability to handle them than their less behaviorally trained counterparts. In regard to patient care, patients of residents in the program which emphasized behavioral science were more likely to receive a psychosocial diagnosis and resident counseling or mental health referral than patients of residents in the program which did not. On a patient satisfaction questionnaire, patients of the two programs differed on only one subscale which concerned convenience of care. Although these early results are encouraging, behavioral science training needs continuing clarification and evaluation of its goals and accomplishments.

Behavioral Sciences↗
PubMed1987

Improving the fit between social science and health care practice: suggested next steps for the researcher.

The aim of this paper is to assess social science research on health and illness in order to enhance its utility for the practical world of health care. The premise is that both social scientists and health care professionals share complementary intellectual interests in fostering empirical research on health and illness. Barriers built into the orientation and reward structure of both professions impede collaborative efforts. In our view, however, the advantages of working on these problems outweigh the disadvantages. Toward this end, we suggest several substantive and methodological directions to be encouraged and then discuss prospects for collaboration from the perspectives of social science, medicine and the wider society. We see opportunity for comparative work, synthesis and the systematic nesting of findings into a knowledge base that will permit generalizations. Our goal is to improve the fit between social science and health practice by increasing the relevance of social science findings for the delivery of care and the training of health care professionals. In addition, hopefully, our suggestions will advance social research independent of its impact on the health field.

Chronic Disease↗
PubMed2004

Right identification of the substantial energy source in biochemical processes as a necessary prerequisite for coherent development of medical sciences.

Because of essential dependence of medical sciences on basic sciences, eventual misconceptions in basic sciences may exert a profound detrimental effect on medical sciences. One such example relates to a concept taken from chemistry that the reducing agent represents the substantial energy source in the process of oxido-reduction. While the recognition of the substantial source of energy is of little importance in technique, it is of utmost importance in medicine for assessment of results of interactions in vivo of various energetic forms and particularly for appreciation of consequences of energy exchange on dynamics of organismal structure. Three proofs are given here that the oxidizing agent, not the reducing agent, is the source of energy in chemical and biochemical oxido-reductive processes. On the other hand, energy content of organic substances being major organismal constituents is represented mostly by energy stored in chemical bonds between their monomeric units. Circumstantial evidence indicates that energy content of one chemical bond between monomeric units per a weight unit is lower in lipids than in proteins or carbohydrates. Regarding structural disorders, there are principally two opposite, mutually exclusive phenomenons: degeneration resulting from loss of energy on one side, and hypergeneration enabled by excess of energy on the other. Disorders of stress and obesity represent states with relative lack of energy. While stress implies a degenerative process usually resulting from acute loss of energy, obesity represents a chronic disturbance of proportions of constitutive substances of the body in favour of less energy-rich substances and therefore might be regarded as a kind of degeneration. The phenomenon of hypergeneration, being contrary to degeneration usually appears as a local overformation of structure called neoplasia.

Biochemistry↗
PubMed2005

On evidence and evidence-based medicine: lessons from the philosophy of science.

The evidence-based medicine (EBM) movement is touted as a new paradigm in medical education and practice, a description that carries with it an enthusiasm for science that has not been seen since logical positivism flourished (circa 1920-1950). At the same time, the term "evidence-based medicine" has a ring of obviousness to it, as few physicians, one suspects, would claim that they do not attempt to base their clinical decision-making on available evidence. However, the apparent obviousness of EBM can and should be challenged on the grounds of how 'evidence' has been problematised in the philosophy of science. EBM enthusiasm, it follows, ought to be tempered. The post-positivist, feminist, and phenomenological philosophies of science that are examined in this paper contest the seemingly unproblematic nature of evidence that underlies EBM by emphasizing different features of the social nature of science. The appeal to the authority of evidence that characterizes evidence-based practices does not increase objectivity but rather obscures the subjective elements that inescapably enter all forms of human inquiry. The seeming common sense of EBM only occurs because of its assumed removal from the social context of medical practice. In the current age where the institutional power of medicine is suspect, a model that represents biomedicine as politically disinterested or merely scientific should give pause.

Evidence-Based Medicine↗
PubMed2006

Nutrition and food science go genomic.

The wealth of genomic information and high-throughput profiling technologies are now being exploited by scientists in the disciplines of nutrition and food science. Diet and food components are prime environmental factors that affect the genome, transcriptome, proteome and metabolome, and this life-long interaction defines the health or disease state of an individual. For the first time the interaction of foods, and individual food constituents, with the biological systems can be defined on a molecular basis. Profiling technologies are used in basic-science applications for identifying the mode of action of foods or particular ingredients, and are similarly taken into the science-driven development of foods with a defined biofunctionality. Biomarker profiles and patterns derived from genomics applications in humans should guide nutrition and food science in developing evidence-based dietary recommendations and health-promoting foods.

Food↗