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PubMed1993

Coping modeling problem solving versus mastery modeling: effects on adherence, in-session process, and skill acquisition in a residential parent-training program.

This trial compared two approaches used to introduce parenting skills in a residential staff training program. Fifty staff were randomly assigned to: mastery modelling in which videotaped models demonstrated new skills, coping modelling problem solving (CMPS) in which participants formulated their own solutions to the errors depicted by videotaped models, or a waiting-list control group. In both, leaders used modelling, role playing, and homework projects to promote mastery and transfer of new skills. The skills of all groups improved, but CMPS participants attended more sessions, were late to fewer sessions, completed more homework, engaged in more cooperative in-session interaction, rated the program more positively, and reported higher job accomplishment scores. These data suggest that CMPS allowing participants to formulate their own solutions may enhance adherence and reduce the resistance observed in more didactic programs.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed1976

Vicarious eyelid conditioning.

This study attempted to demonstrate that elicited electromyographic (EMG) reactions in observers may become conditioned to environmental events during the observation of a modeling sequence. Observers were shown a videotape of a model in a simulated direct eyelid discriminative conditioning situation involving adaptation, acquisition, and extinction trials. Various EMG measures were obtained in order to determine the occurrence of vicarious instigation and conditioning. The results demonstrated vicarious EMG eyelid responses. Also, the motor reactions were found to be localized to specific muscular activity rather than a result of general arousal. Some theoretical and clinical implications of these findings are discussed.

Arousal↗
PubMed1981

How affiliation affects stress in fear and anxiety situations.

In this study I have attempted to determine why the presence of calm others reduces one's arousal in a fear situation but intensifies one's arousal in an anxiety situation. In the fear situation, the person anticipated receiving a physically painful stimulus, whereas in the anxiety condition, the person anticipated receiving an innocuous but embarrassing stimulus. The results of three experiments indicated that (a) a person stressed by fear context only undergoes stress reduction with a calm other present if he can look at the calm other; (b) the mere presence of a co-participant is stress inducing for a person stressed by an anxiety context; (c) the stressed fear person directs attention outward toward impinging environmental stimuli, whereas the highly aroused anxiety person does not or cannot do so. It was argued that stressed fear persons are able to model a calm co-participant because their attention is directed outward, whereas stressed anxiety persons cannot model a calm co-participant because their attention is turned inward. Some ideas are offered as to how a calm model may be able to serve as a stress preventer for a person in an anxiety situation.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1983

Intergenerational transfer of individual differences in hereditary monarchs: genetic, role-modeling, cohort, or sociocultural effects?

Individual differences may be transferred across generations through either genetic inheritance, identification with role models, cohort effects, or sociocultural influences. Each of these four possible mechanisms makes different predictions regarding what traits display intergenerational continuities, the pattern of relationships between an individual and his or her relatives, as well as the relative impact of same-sex and cross-sex relationships. A sample of 342 hereditary monarchs was drawn from 14 European nations. These rulers, along with their parents, grandparents, and predecessors, were then assessed on the variables of intelligence, morality, eminence, leadership, life span, and reign span. Theoretically significant interaction effects were also operationalized using such moderator variables as genetic relationship, years of overlap in lives, age difference, difference in reign midpoints, and sex. The intergenerational transfer of intelligence and life span appears to be best explained by genetics, whereas the transfer of morality and eminence seems to be governed by role-modeling processes. The remaining variables were either transferred by more complex mechanisms (viz. leadership) or not transferred at all from one generation to the next (viz. reign span). The results contradict both Woods's (1906) belief that morality is genetically inherited and Galton's (1869) argument that eminence can served as a nearly equivalent proxy variable for intellectual genius.

Female↗
PubMed1990

Role of cognitive-emotional mediators and individual differences in the effects of media violence on aggression.

Two experiments were conducted to test the hypothesis that observation of media violence elicits thoughts and emotional responses related to aggression. In Experiment 1, highly violent videotapes elicited more aggressive cognitions than did a less violent tape. This effect was moderated by the trait of stimulus screening. In Experiment 2, aggressive cognitions increased with the level of violence in the videotape, and physical assaultiveness influenced this effect. Hostility and systolic blood pressure were higher in response to the most violent video than in response to the other two. Hostility was influenced by emotional susceptibility and dissipation-rumination, and systolic blood pressure was influenced by emotional susceptibility and assaultiveness.

Adult↗
PubMed1992

Relationship between facial expressiveness and sympathetic activation in emotion: a critical review, with emphasis on modeling underlying mechanisms and individual differences.

Two important questions bearing on personality processes and individual differences are how do facial expressiveness and sympathetic activation vary as a function of the intensity of an emotional stimulus, and what is the functional mechanism underlying facial expressiveness and sympathetic activation in emotion? A formulation is proposed that is based on 2 propositions: (a) All strong emotions result in some degree of activation of the organism (i.e., principle of stimulus dynamism) and (b) there are individual differences in the gain (amplification) operating on the facial expressive and sympathetic response channels (i.e., principle of individual response uniqueness). This formulation organizes much of the existing data on internalizers and externalizers and yields novel predictions regarding the subpopulation labeled as generalizers.

Arousal↗
PubMed1996

Does imitation enhance memory for faces? Four converging studies.

Four multimethod studies probed the hypothesis, derived from the Zajonc-Markus motor theory of emotion, that facial recognition is enhanced by imitation of the faces. In all studies, participants were (a) randomly assigned to imitate or to concentrate on a set of faces presented on slides; (b) covertly videotaped, or measured for facial electromyographic responses, to assess facial motor responsiveness; (c) asked to recognize faces previously seen from a larger set; and (d) asked to complete individual difference measures relevant to imitation or memory. The major dependent variable was the percentage of faces accurately recognized. Across variations in procedure, persons who initially imitated faces later recognized fewer faces than did persons in various control conditions. No evidence was found for individual difference moderators of this general conclusion. Results call into question the adequacy of the Zajonc-Markus motoric theory explanation of memory for faces.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

Voluntary facial expression of emotion: comparing congenitally blind with normally sighted encoders.

The ability of congenitally blind persons to produce voluntarily facial expressions of a number of emotions was compared with that of normally sighted individuals using both objective facial measurement and observer recognition. Results revealed that there were almost no significant differences between blind and sighted participants with respect to the number and type of facial action units produced. The portrayals of the blind participants were significantly more poorly recognized by observers than were those of the sighted participants (except for happiness). Correspondence analyses of the data showed differences between sighted and blind participants in the dimensional structure of the expressions (as based on the similarity among emotions with respect to both objective measurement and judgments). Overall, the data relavitize earlier conclusions on the facial expression of blind as compared with sighted persons and suggest specific hypotheses and procedures for further work in this area.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1990

A componential analysis of pacemaker-counter timing systems.

Why does counting improve the accuracy of temporal judgments? Killeen and Weiss (1987) provided a formal answer to this question, and this article provides tests of their analysis. In Experiments 1 and 2, subjects responded on a telegraph key as they reproduced different intervals. Individual response rates remained constant for different target times, as predicted. The variance of reproductions was recovered from the weighted sum of the first and second moments of the component timing and counting processes. Variance in timing long intervals was mainly due to counting error, as predicted. In Experiments 3-5, unconstrained response rate was measured and subjects responded at (a) their unconstrained rate, (b) faster, or (c) slower. When subjects responded at the preferred rate, the accuracy of time judgment improved. Deviations in rates tended to increase the variability of temporal estimates. Implications for pacemaker-counter models of timing are discussed.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

Correspondence effects with manual gestures and postures: a study of imitation.

In this study, the authors applied methods and theories from research of stimulus-response compatibility (SRC) to action imitation. In 6 experiments, they adopted the logic of the Simon paradigm (B. Hommel & W. Prinz, 1996) to explore interference between task-relevant symbolic stimulus features (color) and task-irrelevant iconic stimulus features (2 hand gestures and 2 postures). The same 2 hand gestures served as responses. Pronounced correspondence effects for both gestures and postures showed up throughout. In line with theories of SRC, the authors account for these correspondence effects in terms of overlap arising between stimulus and response features in a common representational domain. As a specific extension of this approach, they propose 2 functionally independent mechanisms: One operates movement-based when dynamic information is provided, and the other operates state-based with static postures as stimuli. Implications for theories of both SRC and action imitation are discussed.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Dissociation of explicit and implicit timing in repetitive tapping and drawing movements.

Four experiments explored the hypothesis that temporal processes may be represented and controlled explicitly or implicitly. Tasks hypothesized to require explicit timing were duration discrimination, tapping, and intermittent circle drawing. In contrast, it was hypothesized that timing control during continuous circle drawing does not rely on an explicit temporal representation; rather, temporal control is an emergent property of other control processes (i.e., timing is controlled implicitly). Temporal consistency on the tapping and intermittent drawing tasks was related, and performance on both of these tasks was correlated with temporal acuity on an auditory duration discrimination task. However, timing variability of these 3 tasks was not correlated with timing variability of continuous circle drawing. These results support the hypothesized distinction between explicit and implicit temporal representations.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1981

Internal representation of simple temporal patterns.

In this study the imitation of several periodically repeating simple temporal patterns consisting of two or more intervals varying in their duration ratios has been investigated. The errors that subjects typically made in their imitations and the systematic changes that occurred during repeated imitations indicate that both musically trained and untrained subjects map temporal sequences onto an interval structure the nature of which is revealed by studying which patterns are correctly and which incorrectly reproduced. A "beat-based" model for the perception of temporal sequences is proposed. This model states that the first step in the processing of a temporal sequence consists of a segmentation of the sequence into equal intervals bordered by events. This interval is called the beat interval. How listeners select this beat interval is only partly understood. In a second step, intervals smaller than the beat interval are expressed as a subdivision of the beat interval in which they occur. The number of within-beat structures that can be represented in the model is, however, limited. Specifically, only beat intervals that are subdivided into either equal intervals or intervals in a 1:2 ratio fit within the model. The partially hierarchical model proposed, though in need of further elaborations, shows why the number of temporal patterns that can be correctly conceptualized is limited. The relation of the model to other models is discussed.

Discrimination Learning↗
PubMed2002

Caregiver models of self and others, coping, and depression: predictors of depression in children with chronic pain.

In a sample of 59 chronically ill pediatric patients and their maternal caregivers, both child-reported pain and caregiver-reported depression predicted child-reported depression. Results further suggested that the association between pain and depression in children is ameliorated by caregiver coping strategies and that how caregivers cope is a function of their attachment-related representations of the self and others. Caregivers with a negative model of the self were more depressed. and those with a negative model of others were more prone to use avoidant coping strategies, and, in turn, to be more depressed. However, the extent to which caregivers with negative models of self used more avoidant and less approach coping appeared to depend on whether they perceived that others were likely to respond to their needs.

Adaptation, Psychological↗