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PubMed2003

Genetic engineering and autonomous agency.

In this paper I argue that the genetic manipulation of sexual orientation at the embryo stage could have a detrimental effect on the subsequent person's later capacity for autonomous agency. By focussing on an example of sexist oppression I show that the norms and expectations expressed with this type of genetic manipulation can threaten the development of autonomous agency and the kind of social environment that makes its exercise likely.

Embryo, Mammalian↗
PubMed1999

Should we undertake genetic research on intelligence?

Although the concept of intelligence is difficult to define, research has provided evidence for a significant genetic component. Attempts are now being made to use molecular genetic approaches to identify genes contributing to intelligence, and to determine the ways in which they interact with environmental variables. This research is then likely to determine the developmental pathways of intelligence, in an effort to understand mental handicap and learning disorders and develop new treatment strategies. This paper reviews research on the genetic basis of intelligence, and discusses the ethical concerns, including the role of genetic information, the value we place on intelligence and the allocation of resources. It will be argued that the objections raised are problematic, and that because of the value of this knowledge and the prospect of improving lives, this research is morally required. We will then provide a brief analysis of the issues raised by enhancement of intelligence using genetic technology, and will argue that there is no intrinsic difference between this and other means of optimising intelligence.

Eugenics↗
PubMed2000

The ethics of genetic research on intelligence.

Should research on the possible genetic components of human intelligence be carried out? I first try to provide some general guidelines as to whether any particular piece of research should be undertaken and then consider the specific example of the ethics of genetic research on intelligence. The history of the debate on intelligence does not make one very optimistic that the fruits of such research would be used wisely. However, there are indications that people's understanding of the nature of inheritance may be improving and it could be that such research might have significant benefits. It is worth remembering that the condition phenylketonuria, a genetic disease in any useful sense of the term, and one that leads to mental retardation (i.e. very low intelligence), is now wholly preventable, and indeed very largely prevented, through environmental intervention.

Ethical Analysis↗
PubMed2006

An evolutionary analysis of the relationship between spite and altruism.

We investigate the selective pressures on a social trait when evolution occurs in a population of constant size. We show that any social trait that is spiteful simultaneously qualifies as altruistic. In other words, any trait that reduces the fitness of less related individuals necessarily increases that of related ones. Our analysis demonstrates that the distinction between "Hamiltonian spite" and "Wilsonian spite" is not justified on the basis of fitness effects. We illustrate this general result with an explicit model for the evolution of a social act that reduces the recipient's survival ("harming trait"). This model shows that the evolution of harming is favoured if local demes are of small size and migration is low (philopatry). Further, deme size and migration rate determine whether harming evolves as a selfish strategy by increasing the fitness of the actor, or as a spiteful/altruistic strategy through its positive effect on the fitness of close kin.

Altruism↗
PubMed1977

Ethology and man: science or myth?

What is known of human evolution gives us little help in describing the biological nature of man: even our fossil history is obscure, and most statements on the evolution of human behaviour are guesses. The fact that primitive man was a predator on other species does not signify that man is "naturally aggressive" to his own kind. The notion of an inherent drive to aggression has no scientific foundation. Knowledge of the conduct of other species can lead to no valid conclusions about human behaviour. The same limitations apply to interpretations of modern man based on what is known of human hunter-gatherers. Ethology can contribute to human studies (1) by providing methods of observing and analysing behaviour, and (2) by providing hypotheses that can be tested. Zoologically-based hypotheses on the ill effects of crowding have been useful but have proved to be wrong. Others on the effects of stimulation in early life, and on breast-feeding and milk composition, have been more fruitful. Abnormal conduct, such as that of Kanner's syndrome, can be usefully studied by ethological methods. Man is a learner and a teacher, whose knowledge of himself increases slowly with the growth of critical research.

Aggression↗