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PubMed1978

Evaluation of sensory irritation from acrolein-formaldehyde mixtures.

Groups of mice were exposed to eleven combinations of acrolein-formaldehyde atmospheres and their respiratory rate was monitored. A mathematical model, previously derived for analysis of taste receptor stimulation, was applied to the data obtained for each of the above chemicals alone and in combination. The results obtained suggest that such a model adequately described sensory irritation due to these chemicals and indicates that competitive agonism exists between acrolein and formaldehyde when present together.

Acrolein↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Neurobehavioral and respiratory symptoms of formaldehyde and xylene exposure in histology technicians.

Disturbances of memory, mood, equilibrium, and sleep that occurred simultaneously with headache and indigestion, were experienced more frequently among women working in histology who had daily exposure to formaldehyde, xylene, and toluene than in unexposed female clerical workers working in the same hospitals. Neurobehavioral symptoms were accompanied by irritation of eyes, upper airways, and trachea. Formaldehyde exposure correlated better with neurobehavioral symptoms and with respiratory and mucous membrane symptoms than did exposure to xylene/toluene or to other agents.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Pulmonary and neurobehavioral effects of formaldehyde exposure.

Two groups of male workers who were exposed to formaldehyde, the first group in phenol-formaldehyde-plastic foam matrix embedding of fiberglass (batt making), and the second in the fixation of tissues for histology, were studied for work-related neuro-behavioral, respiratory, and dermatological symptoms; and for pulmonary functional impairment. Forty-five male fiberglass batt makers who were studied across the initial work-shift after a holiday had average frequencies of combined neurobehavioral, respiratory, and dermatological symptoms of 17.3 for the hot areas and 14.7 for the cold areas of the process. Their symptom counts were significantly greater than those for 18 male histology technicians who averaged 7.3, and for 26 unexposed male hospital workers who averaged 4.8. During their first workshift after holidays, 58% of the batt makers had a decrease in one or more tests of pulmonary function. Nine nonsmokers had decreases more frequently than did 35 smokers; forced expiratory volume in one second FEV1.0 decreased in 16%, diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide (sb) decreased in 30%, forced expiratory flow 25-75 decreased in 16%, and forced expiratory flow) 75-85 decreased in 36%. Thirty-five percent of all 44 men had drops in FEV1.0, forced vital capacity, or in diffusing capacity (sb).

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Formaldehyde impairs memory, equilibrium, and dexterity in histology technicians: effects which persist for days after exposure.

Results of neurobehavioral testing in 305 histology technicians were studied by regression analysis with age, years of cigarette smoking, and hours per day of exposure to formaldehyde and to solvents as major independent variables. Increasing age was associated with poorer performance on visual memory, block design, trails, dexterity by pegboard, sharpened-Romberg, finger writing, as well as with longer choice reaction time. Increased daily hours of exposure to formaldehyde were correlated with reduced performance on story memory, visual memory, digit span, pegboard and sharpened-Romberg, as well as with errors on trails. Exposure to solvents was associated only with diminished recall of story.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Respiratory hazards associated with exposure to formaldehyde and solvents in acid-curing paints.

Thirty-eight employees exposed to formaldehyde when working with acid-hardening lacquers and 18 nonexposed control persons employed at the same company were examined to determine lung function (spirometry and nitrogen washout), total immunoglobulin blood concentration, and work-related symptoms. The mean exposure to formaldehyde during an 8-hr workday was 0.40 mg/m3 air, and the mean exposure to peak values was 0.70 mg/m3. Mean exposure to solvents was low, i.e., approximately 1/10 of the hygienic effect. Eye, nose, and throat irritation was more common in exposed persons than in controls. Monday morning, after two exposure-free days, forced vital capacity (FVC) values were found to have declined by 0.24 L and forced expiratory volume in 1 sec (FEV1.0) by 0.21 L, compared with normal values. There was a weak correlation between the individual concentration of IgG and decrease in FVC and FEV1.0. No significant changes were noted in any other lung function variable before a workshift, and no lung function changes were noted over a full workshift. Deviations in FVC and FEV1.0 values did not correlate to peaks or mean exposures or employment time.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Survey of formaldehyde, acetaldehyde and oligomers in polyethylene terephthalate food-packaging materials.

Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is frequently used as a packaging material for beverage bottles, fruit and vegetable trays, and egg crates in Japan. Levels of formaldehyde (FA), acetaldehyde (AA) and PET oligomers in various PET food packaging were determined. PET samples were initially dissolved in trifluoroacetic acid with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine to derivatize formaldehyde and acetaldehyde to their dinitrophenylhydrazones. The stable derivatives along with the oligomers were analysed using HPLC with ultraviolet light detection at 360 and 254 nm, respectively. The PET pellets contained 3.5-12.4 microg g-1 AA and 4.0-7.2 mg g-1 oligomers, while FA was below the determination limit. FA, AA and oligomer levels in Japanese bottles were 0.6-3.0 microg g-1, 8.4-25.7 microg g-1 and 5.0-8.7 mg g-1, ND-1.6 microg g-1, 5.0-13.1 microg g-1 and 4.9-8.2 mg g-1 in French and Italian bottles, and ND-1.2 microg g-1, 9.1-18.7 microg g-1 and 5.6-8.0 mg g-1 in US and Canadian bottles, respectively. Compared with European bottles, Japanese bottles contain higher FA and AA levels. In sheet-moulding products, their contents were determined as ND-1.1 microg g-1, 11.5-43.1 microg g-1 and 4.6-9.2 mg g-1, respectively. The results show that sheet-moulding products contain lower FA and higher AA in comparison with bottles. FA and AA are considered to be generated from PET during the heating process for moulding the pellets to bottles or sheet-moulding articles and de-aeration during the sheet-moulding process is effective in removing FA. In contrast, the level of the oligomers remains unchanged during the moulding process from pellets to bottles or sheet products.

Acetaldehyde↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Formaldehyde and hexamethylenetetramine as food additives: chemical interactions and toxicology.

Formaldehyde (FA) and hexamethylenetetramine (HMT) are used in cheese production to control gas-forming clostridia; FA also occurs naturally in some foods at levels of 1-20 mg/kg. The toxicology of FA and HMT are briefly discussed together with their reaction in foods. The most abundant end-product of FA in cheese is spinacine derived from the N-terminal histidine residue in gamma 2-casein. Acute and short term toxicological studies on spinacine enable a No Observed Effect Level of 300 mg/kg body weight/day to be determined, leading to an Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) for man of 3 mg/kg body weight/day. From these data a Tolerance Level (TL) of 1800 mg spinacine/kg cheese can be derived, leading to a Safety Margin (SM) of 12.9. It is concluded that there is no appreciable health risk from consumption of cheese made using formaldehyde (Grana Padano) or hexamethylenetetramine (Provolone).

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Mechanical properties of melamine-formaldehyde microcapsules.

The mechanical properties of melamine-formaldehyde (M-F) microcapsules were studied using a micromanipulation technique. Single microcapsules with diameters of 1-12 microm were compressed and held between two parallel planes, compressed and released, and compressed to burst at different speeds, whilst the force being imposed on the microcapsules and their deformation were measured simultaneously. This force increased as single microcapsules were compressed and then relaxed slightly as they were held. When the microcapsules were repeatedly compressed and released, a pseudo yield point was found for each microcapsule. Before the microcapsules were compressed to this point, the deformed microcapsules recovered to their original shape once the force was removed. However, when the deformation was beyond the 'yield point' there was profound hysteresis and the microcapsules showed plastic behaviour. As the microcapsules were compressed to burst at different speeds, ranging from 0.5-6.0 microm/s, it was found that their mean bursting forces did not change significantly. The deformations at the pseudo yield point and at bursting were also independent of the compression speed. On average, these melamine-formaldehyde microcapsules reached their 'yield point' at a deformation of about 19 +/- 1%, and burst at a deformation of 70 +/- 1%.

Biomechanical Phenomena↗
PubMedDate not supplied

In situ poly(urea-formaldehyde) microencapsulation of dicyclopentadiene.

Microencapsulated healing agents that possess adequate strength, long shelf-life and excellent bonding to the host material are required for self-healing materials. Urea-formaldehyde microcapsules containing dicyclopentadiene were prepared by in situ polymerization in an oil-in-water emulsion that meet these requirements for self-healing epoxy. Microcapsules of 10-1000 microm in diameter were produced by appropriate selection of agitation rate in the range of 200-2000 rpm. A linear relation exists between log(mean diameter) and log(agitation rate). Surface morphology and shell wall thickness were investigated by optical and electron microscopy. Microcapsules are composed of a smooth 160-220 nm inner membrane and a rough, porous outer surface of agglomerated urea-formaldehyde nanoparticles. Surface morphology is influenced by pH of the reacting emulsion and interfacial surface area at the core-water interface. High yields (80-90%) of a free flowing powder of spherical microcapsules were produced with a fill content of 83-92 wt% as determined by CHN analysis.

Capsules↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Cytogenetic analysis of buccal cells from shoe-workers and pathology and anatomy laboratory workers exposed to n-hexane, toluene, methyl ethyl ketone and formaldehyde.

People employed in the shoe manufacture and repair industry are at an increased risk for cancer, the strongest evidence being for nasal cancer and leukaemia. A possible causal role for formaldehyde is likely for cancer of the buccal cavity and nasopharynx. Exfoliated buccal cells are good source of tissue for monitoring human exposure to inhaled and ingested occupational and environmental genotoxicants. To assess the cytogenetic damage related to occupational exposure to airborne chemicals during shoe-making and the processes in pathology and anatomy laboratories, the micronuclei (MN) count per 3000 cells was measured in buccal smears from shoe-workers (group I, n = 22) exposed to mainly n-hexane, toluene and methyl ethyl ketone (MEK) and from anatomy and pathology staff (group II, n = 28) exposed to formaldehyde (FA). Eighteen male university staff were used as controls. The mean time-weighted average (TWA) concentrations of n-hexane, toluene and MEK in 10 small shoe workshops were 58.07 p.p.m., 26.62 p.p.m. and 11.39 p.p.m., respectively. The measured air concentrations of FA in the breathing zone of the anatomy and pathology laboratory workers were between 2 and 4 p.p.m. Levels of 2,5-hexadione (2,5-HD) and hippuric acid (HA), metabolic markers of n-hexane and toluene exposure, respectively, were significantly higher in the urine of workers in group I than in control subjects (p < 0.001 and p < 0.01, respectively). The mean (+/- SD) MN (0/00) [corrected] frequencies in buccal mucosa cells from workers in group I, group II and controls were 0.62 +/- 0.45%, 0.71 +/- 0.56% and 0.33 +/- 0.30%, respectively (p < 0.05 and p < 0.05 compared with controls for group I and group II, respectively). The effects of smoking, age and duration of exposure on the frequency of micronucleated buccal cells from workers in all three groups studied were also evaluated. Overall, the results suggest that occupational exposure to organic solvents, mainly n-hexane, toluene, MEK and FA, may cause cytogenetic damage in buccal cells and that use of exfoliated buccal cells seems to be appropriate to measure exposure to organic solvents.

Anatomy↗
PubMed1985

Interaction of formaldehyde with glutathione in the isolated/ventilated perfused lung and the isolated perfused liver.

The interaction of formaldehyde (CH2O) with reduced glutathione (GSH) was evaluated in aqueous solution and in isolated perfused lungs and livers. Addition of CH2O (0-4.9 mM) to a solution of 0.17 mM GSH in 2 mM EDTA, pH 7.4, resulted in a time- and concentration-dependent depletion of GSH. Perfusion of livers with fortified Krebs-Ringer bicarbonate buffer containing 0.3-4.9 mM CH2O resulted in a dose-dependent depletion of GSH. Perfusion of isolated ventilated lungs with perfusate containing 4.9 mM CH2O resulted in a depletion of GSH to 75% of controls. However, lower concentrations of CH2O in the lung perfusate did not result in depletion of GSH. These results demonstrate that exposure to CH2O in aqueous solution or in the perfused lung and liver is capable of depleting endogenous GSH. However, the concentrations of CH2O required to yield a significant depletion of endogenous GSH exceed those encountered in vivo. Thus, it is unlikely that depletion of GSH by CH2O is a causal factor in formaldehyde-induced toxicity.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Successful reduction of morticians' exposure to formaldehyde during embalming procedures.

A case study of the effectiveness of upgraded ventilation engineering controls in a military mortuary facility was performed. Worst-case mortician formaldehyde exposures generated during the use of highly concentrated embalming fluid (required to meet a 2-week preservation standard for overseas case processing and return of the deceased to the continental United States) were documented. A detailed exposure evaluation via consecutive short-term exposure limit (STEL) samples facilitated characterization of the hazard potential for each distinct phase of the embalming process. After baseline screening with 3M passive formaldehyde dosimeters, a total of 145 personal and area STEL sorbent tube samples were collected during six embalming cases between 1994 and 1998. Prior to the installation of local exhaust ventilation controls, personal time-weighted average (TWA) exposure values during embalming activities were 3.19-7.69 ppm for a mean of 4.80 ppm (calculated 8-hour TWA exposures for mortician workshifts were 1.32-2.86 ppm, mean 1.93 ppm). Initial STEL exposures ranged from a low of 0.14 during preembalming body preparation to 20.89 ppm during aspiration of arterial fluids (mean = 4.16 ppm). Embalming room general area samples revealed a mean concentration of 0.76 ppm. With ventilation upgrades installed in 1997, calculated personal 8-hour TWA exposure values during embalming procedures were reduced. STEL exposures decreased to between 0.11 to 3.44 ppm (mean of 0.55 ppm); embalming room general area sample concentrations decreased to a mean of 0.089 ppm. Because occasional 15-min peak exposures continued to exceed the 2.0 ppm Occupational Safety and Health Administration STEL during tasks involving large volumes of embalming fluid or direct contact with paraformaldehyde preservative powders, general room ventilation was further upgraded to 25 room air changes per hour.

Air Pollutants, Occupational↗
PubMed1983

The measuring and monitoring of formaldehyde in inhalation test atmospheres.

The formaldehyde levels in the exposure chambers used for a six-month inhalation study were measured by collecting impinger samples which were analyzed by the chromotropic acid colorimetric method. The levels were also monitored continuously by CEA 555 air monitors. In developing a joint laboratory analytical program, one version of the chromotropic acid procedure was found to give erroneous results. Difficulties were also experienced due to sample contamination during shipment. It was shown that dilute formaldehyde solutions in 1% sodium bisulfite were much more stable than aqueous solutions. Adoption of satisfactory sample shipment methods and standarization of the analytical procedure produced good agreement in the results obtained for impinger samples analyzed by both laboratories.

Air↗
PubMed1983

Formaldehyde vapor exposures in anatomy laboratories.

This study examined formaldehyde vapor exposures that occurred in the gross anatomy laboratories of a major medical school during a 12-week study period. Formaldehyde samples were collected using personal sampling pumps to draw air through midget impingers containing a 0.1% solution of sodium bisulfite dissolved in deionized water as the absorbing medium. Breathing zone and ambient air samples were collected and analyzed from 8 laboratories on a rotating basis. Analysis was via the chromotropic acid method recommended by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. It was found that 44% of all breathing zone samples were greater than the 1.0 ppm ceiling value for occupational exposure recently recommended by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists. Only 11% of ambient air samples were in excess of 1.0 ppm.

Air Pollutants↗
PubMed1984

Kidney dialysis: ambient formaldehyde levels.

Ambient levels of formaldehyde in kidney dialysis units were discussed. Five kidney dialysis clinics were surveyed and air sampling was performed in all major work areas. Formaldehyde levels were found to be below the TLV of 1.0 part per million (ppm) in all samples and the mean ambient level was below 0.5 ppm. Feasible engineering controls that would further reduce or eliminate potential employee exposures were identified.

Air Pollutants, Occupational↗
PubMed1984

Safe decontamination of hospital autopsy rooms and ventilation system by formaldehyde generation.

Space decontamination was required prior to the onset of a remodeling project in the autopsy suite of a large university-hospital complex. The National Institutes of Health procedure using formaldehyde gas as a disinfectant was modified to decontaminate not only the three autopsy rooms but also the exhaust ductwork and the three associated air incinerators. Modifications included an automated formaldehyde gas generator, a smoke test procedure for leaks, and an exhausting technique. This procedure proved to be successful and has the advantage of including the safety features necessary to conduct such a potentially hazardous decontamination in an occupied hospital.

Autopsy↗
PubMed1984

Sampling for formaldehyde in workplace and ambient air environments--additional laboratory validation and field verification of a passive air monitoring device compared with conventional sampling methods.

Results of three extensive plant field tests using both area and personal sampling and involving 51 sets of comparison samples show the Du Pont Pro-Tek Formaldehyde Badge to have excellent correlation with three commonly used formaldehyde monitoring methods. In addition, comprehensive laboratory validation tests are reported which confirm an overall accuracy of +/- 9.6 to +/- 11.6% for the badge over an exposure range of 0.12-6.8 ppm. Laboratory test data are also included showing that the badge: (1) meets NIOSH and OSHA accuracy requirements of less than or equal to +/- 25% down to 1.6 ppm-hours (200 ppb) for an 8-hour TWA exposure; (2) is capable of accurately sampling for 15-minute exposures; and (3) is not affected by pressure or relative humidity variations.

Air Pollutants, Occupational↗
PubMed1985

Ambient concentrations of formaldehyde and ammonia in a screwworm fly rearing facility.

A facility for the mass rearing of sterilized screwworm flies used in fly eradication program efforts was described. Air concentrations of formaldehyde and ammonia were measured during industrial hygiene surveys conducted in the production plant which is currently the world's largest insect rearing facility. Formaldehyde, used as a bactericide and fungicide in the larvae media, was consistently found at levels below current and recommended TLVs. Ammonia, released as metabolic waste from the larvae, was occasionally found at elevated levels in some plant areas. Factors were identified which influenced the in-plant variations of ammonia air levels.

Air Pollutants, Occupational↗