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PubMed2003

Agricultural drainage and wetland management in Ontario.

Land drainage is recognized as an integral part of agricultural activity throughout the world. However, the increase in agricultural production has resulted in the loss of wetland functions and values. Therefore, wetland management and agricultural drainage illustrate the conflict between economic development and natural values. This research assesses the approval process for agricultural land drainage in Ontario, Canada, to determine how the benefits of increased agricultural production are balanced against the loss of wetland values. A permit review of drainage applications was conducted from 1978 to 1997 in Zorra Township, Ontario, Canada. Data collection also included the document reviews, interviews with government agencies and wetland evaluation files. The selected criteria include efficiency, equity, consistency and adequacy. The results indicate that while the process is efficient, fundamental problems remain with the bargaining process.

Agriculture↗
PubMed2004

An economic analysis of life expectancy by gender with application to the United States.

This paper presents an economic model to explain the behavior of life expectancy of both sexes. It explicitly examines the relationship between the gender gap in life expectancy and the gender gap in pay. It shows that as the latter narrows over the course of economic development, the former may initially expand but will eventually shrink. Simulation results from our model accord with the behavior of life expectancy for both sexes since the 1940s in the United States.

Female↗
PubMed2005

TP53 mutations as biomarkers for cancer epidemiology in Latin America: current knowledge and perspectives.

Due to particular social and economical development, and to the impact of globalization of lifestyles, Latin America shows a superposition of cancers that are frequent in low resource countries (gastric, oesophageal squamous cell and cervical cancers) and high resource countries (cancers of breast, colon and rectum, lung and prostate). Latin America thus offers opportunities for investigating the impact on changing lifestyle patterns on the occurrence of cancer. At the molecular level, mutations in the tumor suppressor gene TP53 are common in many cancers and their distribution can be informative of the nature of the mutagenic mechanisms, thus giving clues to cancer etiology and molecular pathogenesis. However most of the data available are derived from studies in industrialized countries. In this review, we discuss current trends on cancer occurrence in Latin American countries, and we review the literature available on TP53 mutations and polymorphisms in patients from Latin America. Overall, a total of 285 mutations have been described in 1213 patients in 20 publications, representing 1.5% of the total number of mutations reported world-wide. Except for hematological cancers, TP53 mutation frequencies are similar to those reported in other regions of the world. The only tumor site presenting significant differences in mutation pattern as compared to other parts of the world is colon and rectum. However, this difference is based on a single study with 35 patients. Recently, a characteristic TP53 mutation at codon 337 (R337H) has been identified in the germline of children with adrenocortical carcinoma in Southern Brazil. Further and better focused analyses of TP53 mutation patterns in the context of epidemiological studies, should help to improve our understanding of cancer etiology in order to develop appropriate health policies and public health programs in Latin America.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Trends in nutritional status and stature among school-age children in Chile.

OBJECTIVE: We studied the prevalence of weight excess and short stature among school-age children in Chile over the past decade. METHODS: We designed a descriptive cross-sectional, school-based study to analyze nutritional and stature trends in prepubertal and pubertal boys and girls from 1986 to 1998. RESULTS: Between 1986 and 1998, we detected significant increases in obesity risk (body mass index between the 85th and 95th percentiles): from 8.3% to 19.6% in prepubertal males, from 5.4% to 14.6% in pubertal males, from 10.2% to 16.2% in prepubertal females, and from 9.7% to 24.9% in pubertal females. Obesity (body mass index > 95th percentile) increased significantly, from 4.3% to 29.5% in prepubertal males, from 1.6% to 14.6% in pubertal, from 4.7% to 24.0% in prepubertal females, and from 2.3% to 17.6% in pubertal females. During this same period, the prevalences of short stature (height for age below the 10th percentile) decreased from 40.9% to 12.0% in prepubertal males, from 44.2% to 20.4% in pubertal males, from 29.8% to 12.7% in prepubertal females, and from 41.1% to 25.8% in pubertal females. CONCLUSIONS: Chile represents a special model of fast changes in nutritional and growth trends due to social and political interventions and economic development. The significance of these findings in the health of Chilean adults and the urgency to implement measures to prevent further increases in obesity and simultaneously decrease the prevalence of short stature are discussed.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

How genetic is school myopia?

Myopia is of diverse aetiology. A small proportion of myopia is clearly familial, generally early in onset and of high level, with defined chromosomal localisations and in some cases, causal genetic mutations. However, in economically developed societies, most myopia appears during childhood, particularly during the school years. The chromosomal localisations characterised so far for high familial myopia do not seem to be relevant to school myopia. Family correlations in refractive error and axial length are consistent with a genetic contribution to variations in school myopia, but potentially confound shared genes and shared environments. High heritability values are obtained from twin studies, but rest on contestable assumptions, and require further critical analysis, particularly in view of the low heritability values obtained from parent-offspring correlations where there has been rapid environmental change between generations. Since heritability is a population-specific parameter, the values obtained on twins cannot be extrapolated to define the genetic contribution to variation in the general population. In addition, high heritability sets no limit to the potential for environmentally induced change. There is in fact strong evidence for rapid, environmentally induced change in the prevalence of myopia, associated with increased education and urbanisation. These environmental impacts have been found in all major branches of the human family, defined in modern molecular terms, with the exception of the Pacific Islanders, where the evidence is too limited to draw conclusions. The idea that populations of East Asian origin have an intrinsically higher prevalence of myopia is not supported by the very low prevalence reported for them in rural areas, and by the high prevalence of myopia reported for Indians in Singapore. A propensity to develop myopia in "myopigenic" environments thus appears to be a common human characteristic. Overall, while there may be a small genetic contribution to school myopia, detectable under conditions of low environmental variation, environmental change appears to be the major factor increasing the prevalence of myopia around the world. There is, moreover, little evidence to support the idea that individuals or populations differ in their susceptibility to environmental risk factors.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Inequalities in mortality by education and socio-economic transition in Lithuania: equal opportunities?

AIM: The aim of this study was to examine the changes in mortality differentials by level of education during the period of socio-economic transition in Lithuania. METHODS: This analysis was based on routine mortality statistics and census data for 1989 and 2001 for the entire country. RESULTS: Despite a general improvement in the level of education in the Lithuanian population, some negative educational patterns were observed amongst its young members. Increasing inequalities in mortality by education have occurred due to a declining mortality rate in people with higher educational achievements and, conversely, an increasing mortality rate in people with a low level of education. Mortality inequalities by education amongst females exceeded those amongst males in 2001, particularly in middle-aged groups and due to external causes. The results of this survey predict an unfavourable forecast of increasing health inequalities in Lithuania in the near future. CONCLUSIONS: General policies for health promotion and disease prevention should be based on the realities faced by lower educated groups, rather than on experiences that are general for the total population or the class of society that has at least achieved an average education. Inequalities in health by the level of education should plateau as the society-at-large enters into a more stable stage of social and economic development.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Nutritional status and associated factors in children aged 0-23 months in Granada, Nicaragua.

OBJECTIVES: Nicaragua is one of two low-income countries in the Latin Americas. The objectives of this study were to clarify the nutritional status of children aged 0-23 months and to identify the associated factors in rural Nicaragua. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: This was a cross-sectional study; a questionnaire survey was performed and anthropometric measurements were taken in Granada province, Nicaragua. RESULTS: Seven hundred and fifty-six mothers with at least one child aged 0-23 months took part in this study. The proportion of underweight children [weight-for-age Z-score <-2 standard deviations (SD)] was 10.3%, while 30.1% of children exhibited stunted growth (height-for-age Z-score <-2 SD) and 5.0% were wasted (weight-for-height Z-score <-2 SD). Mothers' illiteracy or lack of formal education [odds ratio (OR)=3.476, P<0.01], a history of respiratory infection (OR=1.821, P<0.05) and a birth weight below the median (<3000 g; OR=1.704, P<0.05) were identified as risk factors for stunted growth. Breastfeeding for more than 12 months (OR=2.031, P<0.01), absence of participation in child growth monitoring (OR=1.956, P<0.05) and female gender of the child (OR=1.884, P<0.05) were identified as risk factors for underweight. DISCUSSION: Despite the steady economic development in Nicaragua since 1990, child nutritional status has not improved as much as might be expected. The present study revealed that a mother's favourable sociodemographic characteristics and her active participation in health activities, such as child growth monitoring, can protect against child malnutrition, particularly against underweight. More attractive health education or antenatal care programmes might lead to substantial improvements in maternal and child health in this small, poor community.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Evolving trend and self-similarity of ozone pollution in central Hong Kong ambient during 1984-2002.

The evolving pattern of ozone level in Hong Kong urban air has undergone various changes and corresponds to the regional urban and economic development. We assess such changes by reviewing and analyzing the original ozone pollutant database monitored in central Hong Kong downtown area during the period of 1984-2002. Both fractal analysis and traditional statistical methods are adopted to estimate the ozone evolving characteristics during the studied period. It is found that the ozone evolving pattern has strong self-similarity and the ozone pollution presents increasing trend in Hong Kong region in recent years based on the analysis. The typical fractal dimensions for total time series are D = 0.894 for available data set (N = 5760) and D = 0.859 for complete data set with interpolation (N = 6935), respectively. The fractal analysis can be used to assess the pollution trend in urban environment and may provide an alternative method for environmental study.

Air Pollution↗
PubMed2005

Cross-national variation in family influences on child health.

Drawing on the family process literature, child health models, and recent studies of macro-level effects on health, we examine the effects of household structure, resources, care-giving, reproduction, and communication on child nutritional status and infant mortality. Using Demographic and Health Surveys, we analyze the influence of these factors across 42 countries in Latin America, Africa, and Asia. We also consider country-level including nontraditional family structure, level of economic development and expenditures on health care. Our results underscore the importance of family resources, decision-making, and health and feeding practices on child well-being in less developed countries. Although there is cross-national variability, the size of the variability was small relative to the overall effect. The country-level measures had modest effects on infant mortality and child nutritional status.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed2005

Health sector reform in Argentina: a cautionary tale.

In November 2002 the World Bank published a report on the Argentine health sector. The report accurately portrays the complexity and severity of the problems facing the health care system. It stresses that these problems are not purely a product of the country's economic collapse, noting that the system has suffered from long-standing structural problems and inefficiencies. Curiously, the report makes no mention of the leading role played by the World Bank in health reform efforts during the 1990s. This paper demonstrates that these reforms did much to worsen pre-existing weaknesses of the sector. The paper criticises the content of the reform agenda and the manner in which it was produced, arguing that these were reforms in which considerations of public health were less significant than conformity to the wider model of neo-liberal social and economic development prevailing at the time. It also highlights problems of implementing the reform agenda, which reduced the coherency of the reforms. The paper goes on to examine the impact of the crisis, noting links with the preceding reforms. It identifies a number of insights and lessons of potential value to other countries which are pursuing similar policies.

Argentina↗
PubMed2006

The close relation between birth, abortion and employment rates in Sweden from 1980 to 2004.

Birth and abortion rates in Sweden have fluctuated since 1980 while the proportion between the rates are the same at the beginning and end of the period. An increase in birth rates in the late 1980s resulted in a peak in 1991 and 1992, with 124,000 live births each year. Thereafter followed a steady decline in the rate until 2000, when the number of live births was about 90,000. At that point, the trend changed to an increase. The aim of this analysis was to investigate any relation between employment rates and the number of live births among women aged 20-34, and at the same time to explore the trend for abortion rates compared to the trend for live births. The relation between employment status and live birth rate is statistically more significant for women than men, and the rates have a higher correlation for the period after 1986. Young adults in this age group are vulnerable to economic cycles that can explain this covariation but the decline in birth rates in economically developed societies has multidimensional aspects and many other possible explanations. Much has been done in recent years in Sweden to decrease household inequality for families with children to avoid the risk of relative poverty, but the fact that there is no explicit health policy to reduce the abortion level that remain unchanged since the early 1980s may appear as a notable lack of strategy in a country with many other health-related goals.

Abortion, Induced↗
PubMed2004

The myth of the biotech revolution.

The existence of a medicinal 'biotech revolution' has been widely accepted and promoted by academics, consultants, industry and government. This has generated expectations about significant improvements in the drug discovery process, healthcare and economic development that influence a considerable amount of policy-making. Here we present empirical evidence, from a variety of indicators, that shows that a range of outputs have failed to keep pace with increased research and development spending. Rather than producing revolutionary changes, medicinal biotechnology is following a well-established pattern of slow and incremental technology diffusion. Consequently, many expectations are wildly optimistic and over-estimate the speed and extent of the impact of biotechnology, suggesting that the assumptions underpinning much contemporary policymaking need to be rethought.

Attitude to Health↗
PubMed2004

Nutraceutical/drug/anti-terrorism safety assurance through traceability.

Nutraceuticals are naturally occurring/derived bioactive compounds that are reported to have health benefits. The delivery systems for nutraceuticals are foods (functional foods), supplements, or both. Drugs are designed to have medicinal properties for the prevention and treatment of identified diseases or signs and symptoms of disease. Counterfeit drugs contain either placebo, materials not identified in the labeling or substandard or impure materials, which may produce untoward pharmacological or toxicological effects. In addition, the consumer has the right to microbiological safety and prevention from adverse exposure to hazardous chemical(s), and other adverse compounds. Nutraceutical/drug delivery systems are viewed as approaches to (1) enhanced consumer health, (2) decreased healthcare costs, and (3) enhanced economic development. Therefore, the nutra/pharma/ceutical industry is reliant upon a strong underpinning of diversified research that addresses safety and assures chemical and biological efficacy. Significant safety through traceability can be assured by the coupling of the technologies of (a) global positioning (GPS); (b) bar/chip coding; and (c) hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP) management, coupled to rapid nanotechnology marker assays now under development.

Agriculture↗
PubMed2005

The macro-epidemiology of influenza vaccination in 56 countries, 1997--2003.

The WHO Global Agenda on Influenza calls for measuring the progress of national influenza vaccination programs. In response, the Macro-epidemiology of Influenza Vaccination (MIV) Study Group has gathered information on influenza vaccination in 56 countries. During the period 1997--2003, influenza vaccine distribution increased considerably in almost all countries. In 2003, the countries with the highest levels of vaccination (doses distributed/1000 population) were Canada (344), the Republic of Korea (311), the United States (286) and Japan (230). Most countries recommended influenza vaccination for elderly persons and those with high-risk medical conditions, including immuno-compromise. Fewer countries provided public reimbursement for vaccination through national or social health insurance. Higher levels of vaccination were not closely related to higher levels of economic development, but in many instances public reimbursement for vaccination seemed to be associated with greater vaccine use. From 1994 to 2003, the global use of influenza vaccines increased more than two-fold. In 2003, the 56 MIV Study Group countries accounted for approximately 95% of the 292 million doses of influenza vaccine distributed worldwide, and 62% of these doses were distributed within nine vaccine-producing countries in North America, Western Europe, Japan and Australia. However, influenza vaccination was increasing rapidly in many non vaccine-producing countries, and this change has important implications for pandemic vaccination.

Humans↗
PubMed2005

Towards universal childhood immunization: why we must and how we might.

Nearly 3 million children die each year of infectious diseases preventable with vaccines, many costing only pennies per dose. The shameful under use of existing vaccines receives scant attention. It is well within the reach of existing resources to assure the ongoing vaccination of all children everywhere. Human society needs to have universal immunization be achieved and maintained because child survival is a necessary precondition to a stable human population and to economic development. A path forward is suggested.

Child↗
PubMed2005

A novel live recombinant mycobacterial vaccine against bovine tuberculosis more potent than BCG.

Mycobacterium bovis infection of cattle and other domesticated animals exacts a significant economic toll in both economically developing and industrialized countries. Vaccination of herds and/or wild animals that share their grazing land and serve as reservoirs of infection has been proposed as a strategy to combat bovine tuberculosis. However, the only currently available vaccine, M. bovis Bacille Calmette-Guerin (BCG), is not highly efficacious. Here we show that a live recombinant vaccine, rBCG30, which expresses large amounts of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis 30 kDa major secretory protein, is more efficacious against bovine tuberculosis than BCG in the highly demanding guinea pig model of pulmonary tuberculosis. Compared with the parental wild-type BCG strain, rBCG30 administered intradermally induced significantly greater cell-mediated and humoral immune responses against the 30 kDa protein, as determined by measuring cutaneous delayed-type hypersensitivity and antibody titers. As for potency, in three independent experiments, rBCG30 induced greater protective immunity than BCG against aerosol challenge with a highly virulent strain of M. bovis, reducing the burden of M. bovis by 0.4 +/- 0.2 log colony-forming units (CFU) in the lung (P < 0.05) and by 1.1 +/- 0.4 log CFU in the spleen (P = 0.0005) below the level in BCG-immunized animals. A recombinant BCG vaccine overexpressing the identical M. bovis 30 kDa protein, rBCG30Mb, also induced greater cell-mediated and humoral immunity against the 30 kDa protein than BCG and greater protective immunity against M. bovis challenge; however, its potency was not significantly different from rBCG30. As rBCG30 is significantly more potent than BCG against M. bovis challenge, it has potential as a vaccine against bovine tuberculosis in domesticated animals and in wild animal reservoirs.

Aerosols↗
PubMed2006

Immunization against Japanese encephalitis in China: a policy analysis.

This study examined the impact of Japanese encephalitis (JE) immunization policies on disease trends in China. Through a document review and key source interviews in eight provinces, the study found, JE immunizations were provided via a combination of fee-for-service and government funding. Unequal government funding and unbalanced economic development led to variation in JE incidence levels between provinces. Government support of low-fee JE immunization, has led to nationwide decline of JE incidence by >90%; however, greater reliance on user fees and market mechanisms in rural areas has limited the provision of JE and other childhood immunizations to poor rural children.

China↗
PubMed2005

Solid waste management in Macao: practices and challenges.

The rapid economic development and population growth in Macao have resulted in a large increase in refuse generated over the past decade. In 2003, the quantity of solid waste generated reached 249,255 tons, corresponding to 1.52 kg/day per capita. This figure has been gradually increasing. Domestic solid waste is the primary source of solid waste generation. The data showed that a considerable amount of the solid waste generated can be recycled and reutilized. Due to Macao's small geographic area and high cost of land, landfilling has the lowest priority for waste disposal. Solid waste incineration has been given a top priority over other waste disposal methods although it is much more expensive. In the last decade, more than 80% of the total waste in Macao was incinerated. However, the incineration capacity of the Macao Incineration Plant is going to reach its saturation earlier than expected. Waste minimization, the establishment of an effective waste collection and disposal fee system, and alternate ways dealing with the limited capacity of waste treatment facilities are regarded to be major challenges in the future.

Industrial Waste↗