Search PubMed⌕ Search

SEARCH · Search PubMed

Results for “Crustacea”

Search indexed PubMed citations on genomics, clinical trials, systematic reviews and public health. Explore titles, authors and supplied subject terms, then open the PubMed record.

Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.

At least 1,297 records · Page 72Linked to original sources
PubMed1998

Evolution of the interaction between Hox genes and a downstream target.

Segmental identities along the insect body depend on the activities of Hox genes [1,2]. In Drosophila melanogaster, one well-studied Hox regulatory target is Distal-less (Dll), which is required for the development of distal limb structures [3]. In abdominal segments, Dll transcription is prevented when Hox proteins of the Bithorax Complex (BX-C) bind to cis-regulatory elements upstream of the Dll transcription start site [4,5]. Previous evolutionary comparisons of gene expression patterns suggest that this direct repression is conserved between Diptera and Lepidoptera, but is absent in the Crustacea [6,7]. We examined gene expression patterns in three orders of hexapods, all of which develop abdominal appendages, in order to determine when the strong repressive interaction between BX-C proteins and Dll appeared during evolution. In each of the species examined, Dll expression was initiated in abdominal cells despite the presence of high levels of BX-C proteins. It appears that the strong repressive effects of BX-C proteins on Dll expression arose relatively late in insect evolution. We suggest that the regulatory interaction between the BX-C genes and Dll has evolved within the hexapods in a complex, segment-specific manner.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Evidence that ecdysteroids and methyl farnesoate control allometric growth and differentiation in a crustacean.

Allometric, or disproportionate, growth of body parts is a basic problem in morphogenesis. Male spider crabs, Libinia emarginata, have several forms or morphotypes. During the terminal molt, the propodus enlarges disproportionately, exceeding the carapace length by as much as 35%. Even though shorter clawed males are reproductive, the large-clawed males become primary reproductives. We stimulated penultimate stage males to molt by eyestalk ablation, which removes molt inhibiting hormone (MIH) and mandibular organ inhibiting hormone (MIOH), and measured ecdysones by radioimmunoassay and methyl farnesoate (MF) in hemolymph by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) using an internal standard. Eyestalk ablation accelerated molting and increased ecdysteroids to peak at 150 ng/ml before the molt. In control animals the ecdysteroids peaked at 90 ng/ml 3 days before the molt, with MF remaining less than 0.5 ng/ml. These became large males with large allometric claws. In contrast, the ablated ones, with increased MF (1 to 1.5 ng/ml), increased carapace size, but retained shorter non-allometric claws, with length shorter than the carapace. The results are consistent with experiments that we have performed with MF administration (Abdu et al., Biol. Bull., Woods Hole, MA 195 (1998) 112; Laufer et al., Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 111 (1998) 113; Laufer et al., in: IV Symp. Aquaculture in Central America: Focusing on Shrimp and Tilapia, (1997a), p. 161; Laufer et al., Invert. Reprod. Dev. 31 (1997b) 63) which led to the interpretation that ecdysteroids and low MF concentrations promote allometric growth, while ecdysones with relatively higher concentrations of MF inhibited allometric growth. These results indicate and support the conclusion that MF and ecdysteroids determine the control of morphogenesis in allometric growth of Crustacea.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Molecular cloning of a gut-specific chitinase cDNA from the beetle Phaedon cochleariae.

A cDNA encoding a chitinase of Pheadon cochleariae was isolated from a larval gut library. The cDNA encodes a preenzyme with a putative 20 amino-acid signal peptide and a 385 amino-acid mature enzyme of calculated mass of 42.7 kDa. Amino-acid alignment shows 24-33% identity to other insect and crustacea chitinases. The sequence lacks C-terminus domains but active site residues are conserved. Northern analysis localizes the mRNA to guts of feeding larvae. Southern blot analysis, with a complete cDNA probe, suggests that the P. cochleariae genome may contain several chitinase genes. Activity gels show that two groups of chitinases are expressed in the insect. One group comprises chitinases of 30-40 kDa that are active at pH 5.0 and detected in guts of feeding larvae and adults, as well as in pre-pupae and pupae. The other group comprises chitinases of 40-70 kDa that are more active at pH 7.0 and are mainly expressed in pre-pupae and pupae. The biological significance of both groups of chitinases is discussed.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed2001

Lipid reserves used by pueruli of the spiny lobster Jasus edwardsii in crossing the continental shelf of New Zealand.

Lipid is known to fuel the movement of the nektonic puerulus stage of the spiny lobster Jasus edwardsii across the continental shelf of New Zealand. Lipid class analysis of pueruli caught from two locations across the continental shelf showed that phospholipid predominated (86-96% of total lipid), with only smaller proportions of sterol (0.9-8.7%) and diacylglycerol (1.2-7.6%). Only traces of triacylglycerol, hydrocarbon and wax ester were present (<0.1% of total lipid). Comparison of the lipid class content of pueruli caught onshore and offshore showed that phospholipid reserves are primarily utilised during this important phase in the lifecycle and that diacylglycerol plays a less significant secondary role. Histology identified concentrations of phospholipid in fat bodies located in the haemocoel. The use of phospholipid as the dominant storage medium in the puerulus stage is unlike many other marine taxa, including crustacea, which tend to use triacylglycerol and wax ester. The use of phospholipid as a storage medium may well be related to its characteristic transparency, an important feature of this nektonic stage of lobster development that is highly vulnerable to pelagic visual predators.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Telomerase, immortality and cancer.

Replication of eukaryotic linear chromosomes is incomplete and leaves terminal gaps. The evolutionary widely distributed solution to this "end replication" is twofold: chromosome ends are capped with telomeres, bearing multiple copies of redundant telomeric sequences, and the telomerase enzyme can add (lost) telomeric repeats. Telomerase in humans, as in all mammals, is ubiquitous in all embryonic tissues. In adults, telomerase remains active in germs cells, and, although down-regulated in most somatic tissues, telomerase is active in regenerative tissues and notably, in tumor cells. Telomerase activity is linked to cellular proliferation, and its activation seems to be a mandatory step in carcinogenesis. In contrast to mammals, indeterminately growing multicellular organisms, like fish and crustaceae, maintain unlimited growth potential or 'immortality' in all somatic tissues throughout their entire life. Also this cell immortalization is brought about by maintaining telomerase expression. Disease prognosis for human tumors includes evaluation of cell proliferation, based on the detection of proliferation markers with monoclonal antibodies. The significance of the classical marker Ki-67, and of a novel marker repp-86 are compared with semiquantitative telomerase assays. For tumor therapy, telomerase inhibitors are attractive tools. Results with telomerase knock-out mice have revealed promise, but also risk of this approach. On the other side, telomerase stimulation is attractive for expanding the potential of cellular proliferation in vitro, with possible applications for transplantation of in vitro expanded human cells, for immortalizing primary human cells as improved tissue models, and for the isolation of otherwise intractable products, like genuine human monoclonal antibodies.

Animals↗
PubMed1992

Analysis of the complete sequence of a muscle calcium-binding protein of Schistosoma mansoni.

The complete sequence of the cDNA encoding a 20 kDa calcium-binding protein of Schistosoma mansoni (Sm20) has been determined. The predicted amino acid sequence contains 4 EF hand domains but examination of the predicted secondary structure of Sm20, together with the specific residues in each calcium-binding domain, suggests that only 1 EF hand (domain IV) is functional. Sm20 is most homologous to calmodulin, troponin C and the regulatory light-chain of myosin, particularly those of invertebrates. However, troponin C and the regulatory light-chain of myosin can be distinguished from Sm20 by size and by their differential levels of expression during the life-cycle. Sm20 also appears to be distinct from calmodulin but may be functionally equivalent to the soluble sarcoplasmic calcium-binding proteins of molluscs and crustacea which may act as a reservoir for calcium in muscle. Sm20 is encoded by a small multi-gene family whose members are clustered within a 15 kb region of the genome. A 20 kDa antigen, cross-reactive with Sm20, is expressed in Schistosoma haematobium, Fasciola hepatica and Paragonomus mexicanus.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Formation and storage of 11-cis retinol in the eyes of lobster (Homarus) and crayfish (Procambarus).

Modes of storage and mechanisms of formation of 11-cis retinoids in the eyes of animals vary widely among the major phyla. We here describe evidence from two species of macruran decapod crustacea that point to different processes from those known in insects, the other group of arthropods for which there is extensive data. The eyes of the lobster (Homarus) contain about 300 pmol of retinal, somewhat less free retinol, and variable amounts (up to 1000+ pmol) of two retinyl esters, over 90% of which contain retinol in the 11-cis configuration. The major ester contains the long chain, polyunsaturated fatty acid docosahexaenoate (C22:6), but retinyl oleate (C18:1) is also present. Crayfish (Procambarus) contain the same retinyl esters, although in much smaller amounts. Homogenates of the eyes of both species are capable of isomerizing all-trans retinyl docosahexaenoate to the 11-cis configuration without using the energy of light. Crude fractionation of homogenates shows isomerase activity associated with membranes. The reaction mechanism has not been explored in detail, but on the basis of present evidence it may be similar to that found in vertebrate pigment epithelium. It is clearly different from the light-dependent processes known in insects (Hymenoptera and Diptera) and cephalopod mollusks, where isomerization takes place at the level of the aldehyde and 11-cis retinyl esters are not present as major storage reserves.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

The paradigm that all oxygen-respiring eukaryotes have cytosolic CuZn-superoxide dismutase and that Mn-superoxide dismutase is localized to the mitochondria does not apply to a large group of marine arthropods.

The enzyme superoxide dismutase (SOD), which catalyzes the dismutation of the superoxide radical, is present in the cytosol and mitochondria of all oxygen-respiring eukaryotes. The cytosolic form contains copper and zinc (CuZnSOD), whereas the mitochondrial form contains manganese (MnSOD). The latter protein is synthesized in the cytosol as a MnSOD precursor, containing an N-terminal mitochondrial-targeting sequence. CuZnSOD is sensitive toward cyanide (CN) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), but MnSOD is not. Assays for SOD activity in cytosol from the hepatopancreas of the blue crab, Callinectes sapidus, showed the presence of a CN/H2O2-insensitive form of SOD. No CN/H2O2-sensitive CuZnSOD was found. This unexpected phenomenon was shown to occur in all decapod crustacea (crabs, lobsters, shrimp) examined. The cytosolic and mitochondrial SODs of C. sapidus were purified by means of ion-exchange, size-exclusion, and reverse-phase HPLC. The cytosolic SOD is a homodimeric protein, which exists in a monomer-dimer equilibrium (24 kDa left and right arrow 48 kDa). The protein contains approximately 1 Mn per subunit. No copper or zinc is present. Amino acid sequence analysis identified the novel cytosolic SOD as a MnSOD precursor with an abnormal mitochondrial-targeting sequence. The mitochondrial SOD of C. sapidus is similar to the MnSOD found in other eukaryotes. N-Terminal amino sequences of mitochondrial and cytosolic blue crab MnSOD differ in several positions. The MnSODs are thus encoded for by two different genes. The paradigm that all eukaryotes contain intracellular CuZnSOD and that MnSOD occurs exclusively in the mitochondria appears not to apply to a large group of marine arthropods.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed2005

Evidence for the Stepwise Stress Model: Gambusia holbrooki and Daphnia magna under acid mine drainage and acidified reference water stress.

The Stepwise Stress Model (SSM) states that a cascade of regulative behavioral responses with different intrinsic sensitivities and threshold values offers increased behavioral plasticity and thus a wider range of tolerance for environmental changes or pollutant exposures. We tested the SSM with a widely introduced fish Gambusia holbrooki (Girard) (Pisces, Poeciliidae) and the standard laboratory test species Daphnia magna Straus (Crustacea, Daphniidae). The stress was simulated by short-term exposure to acid mine drainage (AMD) and to acidified reference water (ACID). Recording of behavioral responses with the multispecies freshwater biomonitor (MFB) generated continuous time-dependent dose-response data that were modeled in three-dimensional (3D) surface plots. Both the pH-dependent mortalities and the strong linear correlations between pH and aqueous metals confirmed the toxicity of the AMD and ACID gradients, respectively, for fish and Daphnia, the latter being more sensitive. AMD stress at pH < or = 5.5 amplified circadian rhythmicity in both species, while ACID stress did so only in G. holbrooki. A behavioral stepwise stress response was found in both species: D. magna decreased locomotion and ventilation (first step) (AMD, ACID), followed by increased ventilation (second step) (AMD). G. holbrooki decreased locomotion (first step) (AMD, ACID) and increased ventilation at intermediate pH levels (second step) (AMD). Both species, although from different taxonomic groups and feeding habits, followed the SSM, which might be expanded to a general concept for describing the behavioral responses of aquatic organims to pollution. Stepwise stress responses might be applied in online biomonitors to provide more sensitive and graduated alarm settings, hence optimizing the "early warning" detection of pollution waves.

Acids↗
PubMed2000

Taxonomic and phylogenetic analysis of Saprolegniaceae (Oomycetes) inferred from LSU rDNA and ITS sequence comparisons.

The aim of this study was to improve our knowledge about the taxonomy and phylogeny of the family Saprolegniaceae, a group of water molds including several pathogens of plants, fish and crustacea. ITS and LSU rDNA were sequenced for representatives of forty species corresponding to ten genera (Achlya, Aphanomyces, Brevilegnia, Dictyuchus, Leptolegenia, Plectospira, Pythiopsis, Saprolegnia, Thraustotheca). Phenetic and cladistic analyses were then carried out. The species Brevilegnia bispora does not appear to belong to the family Saprolegniaceae. Plectospira myrianda clusters with Aphanomyces spp. and they constitute an ancestral group. (Thraustotheca clavata is closely related to the eccentric species of the genus Achlya. The genus Achlya appears polyphyletic, corroborating more or less the three known subgroups, defined by their sexual spore type (eccentric, centric and subcentric). The achlyoid type of spore dehiscence, shared by Aphanomyces and Achlya genera, is shown to be an ancestral character. The saprolegnioid, dictyoid and thraustothecoid types of spore dehiscence are derived characters but their relative evolutionary positions are not resolved.

Classification↗
PubMed2002

Effects of a mixture of two insecticides in freshwater microcosms: I. Fate of chlorpyrifos and lindane and responses of macroinvertebrates.

Effects of chronic application of a mixture of the insecticides chlorpyrifos and lindane were studied in indoor freshwater microcosms. The exposure concentrations (based on 0, 0.005, 0.01, 0.05, 0.1 and 0.5 times the LC50 of the most sensitive standard test organism for each compound) were kept at a constant level for four weeks. The calculated mean concentrations for chlorpyrifos were found to be almost at their corresponding nominal level during the treatment period. The mean calculated lindane concentrations, however, were found to be 15-40% higher than intended. In the post treatment period both insecticides dissipated fast (t 1/2: chlorpyrifos 9 days, lindane 22 days) from the water phase. The concentrations of the mixture at the highest treatment level corresponded to 0.53 toxic units (TU) for Daphnia magna and 0.61 TU for the most sensitive fish. The decomposition of Populus leaves in litter bags was significantly lower at the three highest insecticide concentrations. The macroinvertebrate community was seriously affected at the three highest treatment levels, with Crustacea and the Chironomidae Corynoneura proving to be the most sensitive groups. Gastropoda and Oligochaeta were relatively insensitive and some taxa (e.g. Valvata piscinalis, juvenile Physa fontinalis, Nemertea and Stylaria lacustris) increased in numbers. The observed effects could be explained from the individual toxicity of the insecticides to the invertebrates, and did not indicate synergistic effects. A second paper (Van den Brink et al., 2002) addresses the effects on other endpoints, as well as the overall risk assessment of the insecticide mixture.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Redistribution of fallout radionuclides in Enewetak Atoll lagoon sediments by callianassid bioturbation.

The lagoon sediments of Enewetak Atoll in the Marshall Islands contain a large selection of fallout radionuclides as a result of 43 nuclear weapon tests conducted there between 1948 and 1958. Studies of the burial of fallout radionuclides have been conducted on the islands and in several of the large craters, but studies of their vertical distribution have been limited to about the upper 20 cm of the lagoon sediments. We have found elevated fallout radionuclide concentrations buried more deeply in the lagoon sediments and evidence of burrowing into the sediment by several species of callianassid ghost shrimp (Crustacea: Thalassinidea) which has displaced highly radioactive sediment. The burrowing activities of callianassids, which are ubiquitous on the lagoon floor, facilitate radionuclide redistribution and complicate the fallout radionuclide inventory of the lagoon.

Micronesia↗
PubMed1994

Evolution of homeotic gene regulation and function in flies and butterflies.

It has been proposed that the evolution of homeotic genes parallels, and to some degree directs, the evolution of segment diversity in the myriapod-insect lineage. But the discovery of discrete Antennapedia complex (ANT-C) and bithorax complex (BX-C) gene members in crustacea, chelicerates, annelids and various insects, as well as in vertebrates, indicates that the expansion and diversification of homeotic genes preceded the diversification of arthropods and insects. How, then, have these genes influenced the evolution of body plans? To address this question, we now examine homeotic gene expression and regulation in butterflies (Lepidoptera), which, unlike flies, possess larval abdominal limbs and two pairs of wings. We show that the difference in larval limb number between these insects results from striking changes in BX-C gene regulation in the butterfly abdomen, and we deduce that the wing-patterning genes regulated by Ultrabithorax have diverged in the course of butterfly and fly evolution. These findings have general implications for the role of homeotic genes in animal evolution.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed2006

Biomechanics: a pneumo-hydrostatic skeleton in land crabs.

Like their aquatic counterparts, terrestrial crabs repeatedly shed their rigid exoskeleton during moulting. But in the case of land crabs, little water is available to provide a temporary hydrostatic skeleton before the new skeleton hardens, and air does not provide the buoyancy necessary to support the animal. Here we show that whenever its exoskeleton is shed, the blackback land crab Gecarcinus lateralis relies on an unconventional type of hydrostatic skeleton that uses both gas and liquid (a 'pneumo-hydrostat'). To our knowledge, this is the first experimental evidence for a locomotor skeleton that depends on a gas. It establishes a new category of hydrostatic skeletal support and possibly a critical adaptation to life on land for the Crustacea.

Air↗
PubMed2004

Cambrian origins and affinities of an enigmatic fossil group of arthropods.

Euthycarcinoids are one of the most enigmatic arthropod groups, having been assigned to nearly all major clades of Arthropoda. Recent work has endorsed closest relationships with crustaceans or a myriapod-hexapod assemblage, a basal position in the Euarthropoda, or a placement in the Hexapoda or hexapod stem group. Euthycarcinoids are known from 13 species ranging in age from Late Ordovician or Early Silurian to Middle Triassic, all in freshwater or brackish water environments. Here we describe a euthycarcinoid from marine strata in Argentina dating from the latest Cambrian period, extending the group's record back as much as 50 million years. Despite its antiquity and marine occurrence, the Cambrian species demonstrates that morphological details were conserved in the transition to fresh water. Trackways in the same unit as the euthycarcinoid strengthen arguments that similar traces of subaerial origin from Cambro-Ordovician rocks were made by euthycarcinoids. Large mandibles in euthycarcinoids are confirmed by the Cambrian species. A morphology-based phylogeny resolves euthycarcinoids as stem-group Mandibulata, sister to the Myriapoda and Crustacea plus Hexapoda.

Abdomen↗
PubMed2005

Neuroanatomy of sea spiders implies an appendicular origin of the protocerebral segment.

Independent specialization of arthropod body segments has led to more than a century of debate on the homology of morphologically diverse segments, each defined by a lateral appendage and a ganglion of the central nervous system. The plesiomorphic composition of the arthropod head remains enigmatic because variation in segments and corresponding appendages is extreme. Within extant arthropod classes (Chelicerata, Myriapoda, Crustacea and Hexapoda--including the insects), correspondences between the appendage-bearing second (deutocerebral) and third (tritocerebral) cephalic neuromeres have been recently resolved on the basis of immunohistochemistry and Hox gene expression patterns. However, no appendage targets the first ganglion, the protocerebrum, and the corresponding segmental identity of this anterior region remains unclear. Reconstructions of stem-group arthropods indicate that the anteriormost region originally might have borne an ocular apparatus and a frontal appendage innervated by the protocerebrum. However, no study of the central nervous system in extant arthropods has been able to corroborate this idea directly, although recent analyses of cephalic gene expression patterns in insects suggest a segmental status for the protocerebral region. Here we investigate the developmental neuroanatomy of a putative basal arthropod, the pycnogonid sea spider, with immunohistochemical techniques. We show that the first pair of appendages, the chelifores, are innervated at an anterior position on the protocerebrum. This is the first true appendage shown to be innervated by the protocerebrum, and thus pycnogonid chelifores are not positionally homologous to appendages of extant arthropods but might, in fact, be homologous to the 'great appendages' of certain Cambrian stem-group arthropods.

Aging↗
PubMed1972

The functional significance of variants of fructose 1,6-diphosphatase in the gill and hypodermis of a marine crustacean. A kinetic study.

1. In the hypodermis and gill of the Crustacea fructose 1,6-diphosphatase (EC 3.1.3.11) functions at a primary branch point between glycogen and chitin synthesis. In these tissues of the Arctic king-crab, Paralithodes camtchatica, fructose diphosphatase occurs in two electrophoretically distinguishable forms. 2. Fructose diphosphatase I (pI7.2-7.5) accounts for 70 and 10% of total fructose diphosphatase activity in the hypodermis and gill respectively, whereas fructose diphosphatase II (pI5.3) accounts for 30 and 90% of the total activity in the two tissues. Both forms display a neutral pH optimum, have an absolute requirement for a bivalent cation, and are potently inhibited by high concentrations of AMP and substrate. 3. Fructose 1,6-diphosphate saturation follows Michaelis-Menten kinetics for both fructose diphosphatases; the K(m) (fructose diphosphate) for fructose diphosphatase I is somewhat higher than for fructose diphosphatase II. In the presence of 50-200mm-K(+), the K(m) (fructose diphosphate) increases and at high concentrations of K(+) fructose diphosphate saturation follows sigmoidal kinetics. 4. UDP-N-acetylglucosamine and UDP-glucose at high concentrations specifically and potently inhibit fructose diphosphatase II, but do not significantly affect fructose diphosphatase I activity. 5. Low concentrations of UDP-N-acetylglucosamine activate fructose diphosphatase II by a decrease in the apparent K(m) (fructose diphosphate), but fructose diphosphatase I is again refractory to UDP-N-acetylglucosamine under these conditions. 6. In the presence of K(+) and UDP-N-acetylglucosamine, fructose diphosphatase II is able to compete for limiting fructose diphosphate about three times more effectively than is fructose diphosphatase I. 7. AMP inhibition of both forms of the enzyme is subject to three independent variables: (a) alkaline pH increases the K(i) (AMP), (b) K(+) decreases the K(i), increases the sigmoidicity of inhibition kinetics, increases the maximum inhibition attained, and abolishes the effect of pH on AMP inhibition, and (c) Mg(2+) strongly de-inhibits AMP-inhibited fructose diphosphatase. 8. It is postulated that the presence of two forms of fructose diphosphatase aids controlled channelling of carbon through the fructose diphosphatase ;bottleneck' either towards glycogen synthesis or chitin synthesis, but not towards both simultaneously.

Adenosine Monophosphate↗
PubMed2003

Dipteran predators of Simuliid blackflies: a worldwide review.

Haematophagous female blackflies (Diptera: Simuliidae) are serious biting pests and obligate vectors of vertebrate pathogens, namely filarial Dirofilaria, Mansonella, Onchocerca and protozoal Leucocytozoon. Immature stages of Simuliidae inhabit lotic waterways, the sessile larvae filter-feeding and often forming a large proportion of the benthic biomass, usually aggregated in well-oxygenated sections of streams, rivers, waterfalls and spillways. Simuliid control practices depend on larvicidal chemicals, biological products (bacteria, nematodes) and environmental modification. The potential use of predators for biological control of Simuliidae has not been exploited. Predators of Simuliidae include examples of at least 12 families of Diptera and other predaceous arthropods (Crustacea and insects: Coleoptera, Odonata, Plecoptera, Trichoptera), invertebrates (notably Turbellaria), as well as browsing fish. Diptera impacting upon simuliid populations comprise mainly Chironomidae, Empididae and Muscidae, although several other families (Asilidae, Dolichopodidae, Phoridae, Drosophilidae, Scathophagidae) play a significant role as predators. Details of predator and prey species and life stages are presented, by zoogeographical region, including the prevalence of cannibalism among Simuliidae.

Animals↗