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Twenty-first century learning in schools: A case study of New Technology High School in Napa, California.

The most pertinent question concerning teaching and learning in the twenty-first century is not what knowledge and skills students need--that laundry list was identified over a decade ago--but rather how to foster twenty-first century learning. What curricula, experiences, assessments, environments, and technology best support twenty-first century learning? New Technology High School (NTHS) in Napa, California, is one example of a successful twenty-first century school. In this chapter, the author describes the components of this exemplary high school, illustrating an environment that will cultivate twenty-first century student learning. New Technology High School began by defining eight learning outcomes, aligned with the standards of the Partnership for 21st Century Skills; to graduate, students demonstrate mastery of these outcomes through an online portfolio. To help students achieve the outcomes, NTHS employs project- and problem-based learning. Whereas in traditional classrooms students work alone on short-term assignments that do not lend themselves to deep understanding, the project-based learning approach has students working in teams on long-term, in-depth, rigorous projects. Students' work is supported by the school's workplace-like environment and effectiv use of technology. Meaningful assessment is essential to project-based learning; students receive continuous feedback, helping them become self-directed learners. In fact, NTHS uses outcome-based grading through which students constantly know how they are performing on the twenty-first century outcomes. Research has shown that NTHS graduates are better prepared for postsecondary education, careers, and citizenship than their peers from other schools. To facilitate twenty-first century learning, all schools need to rethink their approach to teaching and learning. New Technology High School is one way to do so.

Adolescent↗

The time course of changes during motor sequence learning: a whole-brain fMRI study.

There is a discrepancy between the results of imaging studies in which subjects learn motor sequences. Some experiments have shown decreases in the activation of some areas as learning increased, whereas others have reported learning-related increases as learning progressed. We have exploited fMRI to measure changes in blood oxygen leve-dependent (BOLD) signal throughout the course of learning. T2*-weighted echo-planar images were acquired over the whole brain for 40 min while the subjects learned a sequence eight moves long by trial and error. The movements were visually paced every 3.2 s and visual feedback was provided to the subjects. A baseline period followed each activation period. The effect due to the experimental conditions was modeled using a square-wave function, time locked to their occurrence. Changes over time in the difference between activation and baseline signal were modeled using a set of polynomial basis functions. This allowed us to take into account linear as well as nonlinear changes over time. Low-frequency changes over time common to both activation and baseline conditions (and thus not learning related) were modeled and removed. Linear and nonlinear changes of BOLD signal over time were found in prefrontal, premotor, and parietal cortex and in neostriatal and cerebellar areas. Single-unit recordings in nonhuman primates during the learning of motor tasks have clearly shown increased activity early in learning, followed by a decrease as learning progressed. Both phenomena can be observed at the population level in the present study.

Adult↗

Effects of excitotoxic brain lesions on taste-mediated odor learning in the rat.

The association learning between taste and odor is important in ingestive behavior. For a better understanding of this learning, we have developed a convenient and useful paradigm to assess the taste-mediated odor learning. In the training session, Wistar male rats drank water from two bottles in their home cages and from eight small glass dishes. In the learning session they were exposed in their home cages and also in a circular open-field apparatus to 0.005 M Na-saccharin and 0.02 M quinine hydrochloride which contained either banana or almond odors. One learning trial consisted of this pair of exposures. The preceding behavioral experiment has shown that these two odors are not aversive and are differentially perceived by rats. In the test session, the animals were put in the open-field apparatus equipped with eight dishes: four contained water with banana, and another four, with almond. Normal control rats preferred to drink water with the odor previously associated with saccharin. Stronger and more persistent preference was attained after two or three learning trials. To elucidate the brain sites responsible for this taste-mediated odor learning, the same procedure was assessed on brain-lesioned rats. Rats with lesions in the amygdala showed rapid extinction of preference to the saccharin-associated odor, whereas control rats did not. However, rats with lesions in the insular cortex showed retention of learning similar to that of the control rats. Rats with lesions in the sulcal prefrontal or cingulate cortices showed moderate disruptive effects on preference to the saccharin-associated odor. In conclusion, the odor learning established in our experimental paradigm is based on the association between the quality of odor and hedonics of taste. The amygdala may play a role in the formation, at least in the retention process, of this taste-odor association learning.

Amygdala↗

Differences in the effects of post-trial chlorpromazine, reserpine, and amphetamine on discrimination learning in rats.

Rats were trained to perform in discrimination learning reinforced by water for 6 days, and were intraperitoneally injected with chlorpromazine, reserpine, or d-amphetamine after each training session. Although chlorpromazine at the dose levels of 0.5 mg/kg or more injected immediately after training impaired learning, the drug did not affect learning when it was injected 60 min after training. Reserpine and amphetamine also impaired learning, but delaying the time intervals between training and injection to 60 min or more had no influence on this learning impairment. Post-trial chlorpromazine and amphetamine had no effect on, but reserpine decreased, motility in the subsequent training session. Chlorpromazine had no effect on water intake in the subsequent session, but reserpine and amphetamine decreased water intake at the dose levels that impaired learning. It was concluded that all three drugs impaired learning, but differed in their effects on learning; chlorpromazine impaired learning by a specific effect on learning itself; reserpine, by a non-specific effect on behavior due to a long acting sedation; and amphetamine, by an effect to decrease the motivation to drink water. The specific effect of chlorpromazine could be related to the hypothesis of "memory trace" synthesis.

Animals↗

Stimulus-response versus stimulus-stimulus-response learning in cerebellar patients.

Ample evidence exists that the cerebellum is involved in associative motor learning, particularly in eyeblink-conditioning. In visuomotor associative learning the role of the cerebellum is less clear. One open question is whether cerebellar patients' deficits in visuomotor learning are present both in a stimulus-response and a stimulus-stimulus-response association task. Twelve patients with cerebellar degeneration and 12 healthy matched control subjects participated. A magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) volumetric analysis of the cerebellum was performed to assess the degree of cerebellar atrophy. In a blocked design, subjects had to learn the association between one color square or two color squares and a right or left key press. In the latter condition, the two colors were shown one after the other in the same sequence except for two blocks at the end of the experiment. Overall, cerebellar subjects reacted significantly slower than controls. In both groups, reaction time decreased over blocks, and the learning effect was more pronounced in the stimulus-response than in the stimulus-stimulus-response condition. Post hoc analyses revealed that learning differences between conditions were significant in cerebellar patients but not control subjects. Furthermore, only healthy subjects were irritated, i.e., they significantly increased reaction times in the blocks with reversed sequence in the stimulus-stimulus-response condition. Cerebellar subjects tended to name less correct stimulus-stimulus-response associations after the experiment. Finally, cerebellar volume correlated with parameters of motor performance, but not learning. In conclusion, cerebellar patients showed deficits in stimulus-stimulus-response, but not stimulus-response learning. Future experiments are needed to differentiate between possible deficits in learning the stimulus-stimulus association, use of sequence information, and/or impaired motor performance interfering with learning.

Adult↗

Supervised learning of postural tasks in patients with poststroke hemiparesis, Parkinson's disease or cerebellar ataxia.

Supervised learning of different postural tasks in patients with lesions of the motor cortex or pyramidal system (poststroke hemiparesis: 20 patients), nigro-striatal system (Parkinson's disease: 33 patients) and cerebellum (spinocerebellar ataxia: 37 patients) was studied. A control group consisted of 13 healthy subjects. The subjects stood on a force platform and were trained to change the position of the center of pressure (CP) presented as a cursor on a monitor screen in front of the patient. Subjects were instructed to align the CP with the target and then move the target by shifting the CP in the indicated direction. Two different tasks were used. In "Balls", the target (a ball) position varied randomly, so the subject learned a general strategy of voluntary CP control. In "Bricks", the subject had to always move the target in a single direction (downward) from the top to the bottom of the screen, so that a precise postural coordination had to be learned. The training consisted of 10 sessions for each task. The number of correctly performed trials for a session (2 min for each task) was scored. The voluntary control of the CP position was initially impaired in all groups of patients in both tasks. In "Balls", there were no differences between the groups of the patients on the first day. The learning course was somewhat better in hemiparetic patients than in the other groups. In "Bricks", the initial deficit was greater in the groups of parkinsonian and cerebellar patients than in hemiparetic patients. However, learning was more efficient in parkinsonian than in hemiparetic and cerebellar patients. After 10 days of training, the hemiparetic and cerebellar patients completed the acquisition at a certain level whereas the parkinsonian patients showed the ability for further improvement. The results suggest that motor cortex, cerebellum, and basal ganglia are involved in voluntary control of posture and learning different postural tasks. However, these structures play different roles in postural control and learning: basal ganglia are mainly involved in learning a general strategy of CP control while the function of the motor cortex chiefly concerns learning a specific CP trajectory. The cerebellum is involved in both kinds of learning.

Adult↗

The influence of the response-stimulus interval on implicit and explicit learning of stimulus sequence.

Three experiments investigated the influence of the response-stimulus interval (RSI) on implicit and explicit learning of stimulus sequences. Participants responded to numerals presented in predetermined positions with alternating long and short RSIs. Half of the participants were instructed explicitly to learn the position sequence. In the transfer phase of Experiments 1 and 2, changing RSI patterns reduced the expression of incidental and intentional learning of position sequence. In Experiment 3 the position sequence was transformed, except that sub-sequences demarcated by long RSIs remained unchanged; this greatly reduced the expression of intentional learning, and slightly reduced that of incidental learning. These results indicate that in implicit learning, stimulus sequences are learned under the constraints of RSIs, whereas in explicit learning, learning independent of RSIs, as well as learning constrained by RSIs, occurs.

Adult↗

Conditional visuo-motor learning and dimension reduction.

Conditional visuo-motor learning consists in learning by trial and error to associate visual cues with correct motor responses, that have no direct link. Converging evidence supports the role of a large brain network in this type of learning, including the prefrontal and the premotor cortex, the basal ganglia BG and the hippocampus. In this paper we focus on the role of a major structure of the BG, the striatum. We first present behavioral results and electrophysiological data recorded from this structure in monkeys engaged in learning new visuo-motor associations. Visual stimuli were presented on a video screen and the animals had to learn, by trial and error, to select the correct movement of a joystick, in order to receive a liquid reward. Behavioral results revealed that the monkeys used a sequential strategy, whereby they learned the associations one by one although they were presented randomly. Human subjects, tested on the same task, also used a sequential strategy. Neuronal recordings in monkeys revealed learning-related modulations of neural activity in the striatum. We then present a mathematical model inspired by viability theory developed to implement the use of strategies during learning. This model complements existing models of the BG based on reinforcement learning RL, which do not take into account the use of strategies to reduce the dimension of the learning space.

Basal Ganglia↗

Complex roles of glutamate in the Gibbs-Ng model of one-trial aversive learning in the new-born chick.

Glutamate is the most widespread excitatory transmitter in the CNS and is probably involved in LTP, a neural phenomenon which may be associated with learning and memory formation. Intracerebral injection of large amounts of glutamate between 5 min and 2.5 min after passive avoidance learning in young chicks inhibits short-term memory, which occurs between 0 and 10 min post-learning in a three-stage model of memory formation first established by Gibbs and Ng(25) [Physiol. Behav. 23:369-375; 1979]. This effect may be attributed to non-specific excitation. Blockade of glutamate uptake by L-aspartic and beta-hydroxamate also abolishes this stage of memory, provided the drug is administered within 2.5 min of learning. Interference with either production of percursors for transmitter glutamate in astrocytes or with glutamate receptors is also detrimental to memory formation, but the effects appear much later. After its release from glutamatergic neurons, glutamate is, to a large extent, accumulated into astrocytes where it is converted to glutamine, which can be returned to glutamatergic neurons and reutilized for synthesis of transmitter glutamate, and partly oxidized as a metabolic substrate. The latter process leads to a net loss of transmitter glutamate which can be compensated for by de novo synthesis of a glutamate precursor alpha-ketoglutarate (alpha KG) in astrocytes, a process which is inhibited by the astrocyte-specific toxin fluoroacetate (R. A. Swanson, personal communication). Intracerebral injection of this toxin abolishes memory during an intermediate stage of memory processing occurring between 20 and 30 min post-training (50) [Cog. Brain Res, 2:93-102; 1994]. Injection of methionine sulfoximine (MSO), a specific inhibitor of glutamine synthetase, which interferes with the re-supply of transmitter glutamate to neurons by inhibition of glutamine synthesis in astrocytes, has a similar effect. This effect of MSO is prevented by intracerebral injection of glutamate, glutamine, or a combination and alpha KG and alanine. MSO must be administered before learning, but does not interfere with acquisition since short-term memory remains intact. Administration of either the NMDA antagonist AP5, the AMPA antagonist DNQX, or the metabotropic receptor antagonist MCPF, also induces amnesia. Memory loss in each case does not occur until after 70 min post-training, during a protein synthesis-dependent long-term memory stage which begins at 60 min following learning. However, to be effective, AP5 must be administered within 60 s following learning, MCPG before 15 min post-learning, and DNQX between 15 and 25 min after learning. Together, these findings suggest that learning results in an immediate release of glutamate, followed by a secondary release of this transmitter at later stages of processing of the memory trace, and that one or both of these increases in extracellular glutamate concentration are essential for the consolidation of long-term memory. Since both fluoroacetate and MSO act exclusively on glial cells, the findings also show that neuronal-glial interactions are necessary during the establishment of memory.

Animals↗

Exploring the process of learning in human ecology.

The process of learning phenomenon has been and is still widely discussed in nursing education especially in relation to adult learning. In this paper, the author reflects upon and analyses his own specific learning activity in the human ecology perspective to construct a conceptual framework of how learning takes place. He begins by briefly defining human ecology within which this learning process takes place and explores in general terms the existing definitions of 'learning' before arriving at his working definition. He then relates, and explores his learning experience as a basis for analysing how learning actually takes place and uses the identified learning characteristics within this mode of learning to support its relevance and implications for nurse education.

Cultural Characteristics↗

Supporting continuous learning in a large organization: the role of group and organizational perspectives.

Many organizations recognize the need to continuously adapt and learn in order to survive and remain competitive. Learning and therefore change in organizations is driven in two ways. First, there is strategically driven learning, motivated by high-level factors such as market changes, company mergers and newly emerging approaches to organizational management and workplace learning. These changes reveal themselves in the introduction of new training programmes, recruitment strategies and knowledge management methodologies. Second, there is local, continuous learning occurring from the ground up. This is revealed as workers become more adept at their job through experience and collaboration with colleagues. Continuous learning is more gradual and requires local autonomy. This paper describes an experiment in supporting local, continuous learning, and its dissemination, but driven by a strategic initiative of the organization. This work raised many issues concerning the difficulty of integrating local and global organizational influences on learning. We outline lessons learned and suggestions as to the extent to which it is possible to align continuous learning with a company-wide perspective.

Computer Systems↗

A failure of sleep-dependent procedural learning in chronic, medicated schizophrenia.

BACKGROUND: Schizophrenia patients have difficulty mastering even rote procedural tasks in rehabilitation settings. Although most studies demonstrate intact procedural learning in schizophrenia, recent findings demonstrate that a critical component of procedural learning is dependent on sleep. This study tested the hypothesis that patients with schizophrenia have a deficit in sleep-dependent procedural learning. METHODS: Using a simple, well-characterized test of motor skill learning, the finger tapping motor sequence task (MST), 26 patients with chronic, medicated schizophrenia and 14 demographically matched healthy control subjects were tested on two occasions, 24 hours apart. The main outcome measures were learning of the MST on day 1 (practice-dependent learning) and overnight, sleep-dependent improvement in performance. RESULTS: Although schizophrenia patients and control subjects did not differ in practice-dependent learning, patients failed to show overnight improvement (4% deterioration) and differed significantly from control subjects who showed a significant 11% improvement. CONCLUSIONS: We present here the first demonstration of a failure of sleep-dependent consolidation of procedural learning in chronic, medicated schizophrenia. This deficit occurred in the context of normal practice-dependent learning within a training session. This behavioral dissociation is consistent with evidence that practice- and sleep-dependent motor learning reflect independent processes and suggests that they are differentially affected in schizophrenia.

Adult↗

Effects of laterality and sex on cognitive strategy in a water maze place learning task and modification by nicotine and nitric oxide synthase inhibition in rats.

The aim of the present study was to investigate sex differences in learning strategies and to elucidate the mechanisms, which may underlie these differences. In two separate experiments, rats were presented with different strategies that could be employed to learn the position of a platform in a water maze (WM); furthermore, rats received treatments that could influence these strategies. In the first experiment, we demonstrated that the response-learning paradigm can be applied to the WM and can be compared with visually cued learning and reversal learning. Naïve rats of either sex could acquire this protocol relatively easily. On the probe trial, where the rats are presented with a choice between using response versus visually cued learning, initially response learning was preferred, however, during these experiments, laterality emerged as a significant factor and rats trained to turn right had difficulty in reversing the learned pattern to find the platform. The second part of our study evaluated the effects of nicotine and nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibition on the aforementioned parameters. Drug treatments impaired acquisition compared to saline treatments and the effect was more pronounced with NOS inhibition. During the probe trial, while NOS inhibition enhanced the right-side bias in both sexes, nicotine treatment had the same effect only in males. In conclusion, naïve rats can acquire place learning using visible cues or response learning; however, there is a right side bias in both sexes and the laterality effect is more pronounced in male rats. In drug-treated animals, while NOS inhibition enhances laterality (right bias) in both sexes similarly, nicotine modifies the cognitive strategy in a sexually dimorphic manner by augmenting the right bias only in male rats.

Animals↗

A quantitative evaluation of the AVITEWRITE model of handwriting learning.

Much sensory-motor behavior develops through imitation, as during the learning of handwriting by children. Such complex sequential acts are broken down into distinct motor control synergies, or muscle groups, whose activities overlap in time to generate continuous, curved movements that obey an inverse relation between curvature and speed. The adaptive vector integration to endpoint handwriting (AVITEWRITE) model of Grossberg and Paine (2000) [A neural model of corticocerebellar interactions during attentive imitation and predictive learning of sequential handwriting movements. Neural Networks, 13, 999-1046] addressed how such complex movements may be learned through attentive imitation. The model suggested how parietal and motor cortical mechanisms, such as difference vector encoding, interact with adaptively-timed, predictive cerebellar learning during movement imitation and predictive performance. Key psychophysical and neural data about learning to make curved movements were simulated, including a decrease in writing time as learning progresses; generation of unimodal, bell-shaped velocity profiles for each movement synergy; size scaling with isochrony, and speed scaling with preservation of the letter shape and the shapes of the velocity profiles; an inverse relation between curvature and tangential velocity; and a two-thirds power law relation between angular velocity and curvature. However, the model learned from letter trajectories of only one subject, and only qualitative kinematic comparisons were made with previously published human data. The present work describes a quantitative test of AVITEWRITE through direct comparison of a corpus of human handwriting data with the model's performance when it learns by tracing the human trajectories. The results show that model performance was variable across the subjects, with an average correlation between the model and human data of 0.89+/-0.10. The present data from simulations using the AVITEWRITE model highlight some of its strengths while focusing attention on areas, such as novel shape learning in children, where all models of handwriting and the learning of other complex sensory-motor skills would benefit from further research.

Attention↗

Specificity of sensorimotor learning and the neural code: neuronal representations in the primary motor cortex.

Human studies show that the learning of a new sensorimotor mapping that requires adaptation to directional errors is local and generalizes poorly to untrained directions. We trained monkeys to learn new visuomotor rotations for only one target in space and recorded neuronal activity in the primary motor cortex before, during and after learning. Similar to humans, the monkeys showed poor transfer of learning to other directions, as observed by behavioral aftereffects for untrained directions. To test for internal representations underlying these changes, we compared two features of neuronal activity before and after learning: changes in firing rates and changes in information content. Specific elevations of firing rate were only observed in a subpopulation of cells in the motor cortex with directional properties corresponding to the locally learned rotation; namely cells only showed plasticity if their preferred direction was near the training one. We applied measures from information theory to probe for learning-related changes in the neuronal code. Single cells conveyed more information about the direction of movement and this specific improvement in encoding was correlated with an increase in the slope of the neurons' tuning curve. Further, the improved information after learning enabled a more accurate reconstruction of movement direction from neuronal populations. Our findings suggest a neural mechanism for the confined generalization of a newly acquired internal model by showing a tight relationship between the locality of learning and the properties of neurons. They also provide direct evidence for improvement in the neural code as a result of learning.

Action Potentials↗

An exploration of student midwives' language to describe non-formal learning in professional practice.

The essence of non-formal learning in midwifery practice has not been previously explored. This paper provides an in-depth analysis of the language of a sample of student midwives' descriptions of their practice learning in a range of clinical settings. The students submitted audio-diaries as part of a national study (Pope, R., Graham. L., Finnerty. G., Magnusson, C. 2003. An investigation of the preparation and assessment for midwifery practice within a range of settings. Project Report. University of Surrey). Participants detailed their learning activities and support obtained whilst working with their named mentors for approximately 10 days or shifts. The rich audio-diary data have been analysed using Discourse Analysis. A typology of non-formal learning (Eraut, M. 2000. Non-formal learning and implicit knowledge in professional work. British Journal of Educational Psychology 70, 113-136) has been used to provide a framework for the analysis. Non-formal learning is defined as any learning which does not take place within a formally organised learning programme (Eraut, M. 2000. Non-formal learning and implicit knowledge in professional work. British Journal of Educational Psychology 70, 113-136). Findings indicate that fear and ambiguity hindered students' learning. Recommendations include the protection of time by mentors within the clinical curriculum to guide and supervise students in both formal and non-formal elements of midwifery practice. This paper will explore the implications of the findings for practice-based education.

Attitude of Health Personnel↗

Sleep and rest facilitate auditory learning.

Sleep is superior to waking for promoting performance improvements between sessions of visual perceptual and motor learning tasks. Few studies have investigated possible effects of sleep on auditory learning. A key issue is whether sleep specifically promotes learning, or whether restful waking yields similar benefits. According to the "interference hypothesis," sleep facilitates learning because it prevents interference from ongoing sensory input, learning and other cognitive activities that normally occur during waking. We tested this hypothesis by comparing effects of sleep, busy waking (watching a film) and restful waking (lying in the dark) on auditory tone sequence learning. Consistent with recent findings for human language learning, we found that compared with busy waking, sleep between sessions of auditory tone sequence learning enhanced performance improvements. Restful waking provided similar benefits, as predicted based on the interference hypothesis. These findings indicate that physiological, behavioral and environmental conditions that accompany restful waking are sufficient to facilitate learning and may contribute to the facilitation of learning that occurs during sleep.

Acoustic Stimulation↗

Exploration in outbred mice covaries with general learning abilities irrespective of stress reactivity, emotionality, and physical attributes.

Across multiple learning tasks (that place different sensory, motor, and information processing demands on the animals), we have found that the performance of mice is commonly regulated by a single factor ("general learning") that accounts for 30-40% of the variance across individuals and tasks. Furthermore, individuals' general learning abilities were highly correlated with their propensity to engage in exploration in an open field, a behavior that is potentially stress-inducing. This relationship between exploration in the open field and general learning abilities suggests the possibility that variations in stress sensitivity/responsivity or related emotional responses might directly influence individuals' general learning abilities. Here, the relationship of sensory/motor skills and stress sensitivity/emotionality to animals' general learning abilities were assessed. Outbred (CD-1) mice were tested in a battery of six learning tasks as well as 21 tests of exploratory behavior, sensory/motor function and fitness, emotionality, and stress reactivity. The performances of individual mice were correlated across six learning tasks, and the performance measures of all learning tasks loaded heavily on a single factor (principal component analysis), accounting for 32% of the variability between animals and tasks. Open field exploration and seven additional exploratory behaviors (including those exhibited in an elevated plus maze) also loaded heavily on this same factor, although general activity, sensory/motor responses, physical characteristics, and direct measures of fear did not. In a separate experiment, serum corticosterone levels of mice were elevated in response to a mild environmental stressor (confinement on an elevated platform). Stress-induced corticosterone levels were correlated with behavioral fear responses, but were unsystematically related to individuals' propensity for exploration. In total, these results suggest that although general learning abilities are strongly related to individuals' propensity for exploration, this relationship is not attributable to variations in sensory/motor function or the individuals' physiological or behavioral sensitivity to conditions that promote stress or fear.

Animals↗