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PubMed1995

Effects of event structure on retrospective duration judgments.

Two experiments examined whether varying degrees of event coherence influence the remembering of an event's actual duration. Relying on musical compositions (Experiment 1) or filmed narratives (Experiment 2) as experimental stimuli, the underlying hierarchy of information within events (i.e., melodic intervals or story elements) was either attentionally highlighted or obscured by placing a varying number of accents (i.e., prolonged notes or commercial breaks) at locations that either coincided or conflicted with grammatical phrase boundaries. When subjects were unexpectedly asked to judge the actual duration of events, through a reproduction (Experiment 1) or verbal estimation (Experiment 2) task, duration estimates became more accurate and less variable when the pattern of accentuation increasingly outlined the events' nested relationships. Conversely, when the events' organization was increasingly obscured through accentuation, time judgments not only became less accurate and more variable, but were consistently overestimated. These findings support a theoretical framework emphasizing the effects of event structure on attending and remembering activities.

Auditory Perception↗
PubMed1996

Human heading judgments in the presence of moving objects.

When moving toward a stationary scene, people judge their heading quite well from visual information alone. Much experimental and modeling work has been presented to analyze how people judge their heading for stationary scenes. However, in everyday life, we often move through scenes that contain moving objects. Most models have difficulty computing heading when moving objects are in the scene, and few studies have examined how well humans perform in the presence of moving objects. In this study, we tested how well people judge their heading in the presence of moving objects. We found that people perform remarkably well under a variety of conditions. The only condition that affects an observer's ability to judge heading accurately consists of a large moving object crossing the observer's path. In this case, the presence of the object causes a small bias in the heading judgments. For objects moving horizontally with respect to the observer, this bias is in the object's direction of motion. These results present a challenge for computational models.

Attention↗
PubMed1997

Judgments of relative time-to-contact of more than two approaching objects: toward a method.

Observers reported which of as many as eight computer-generated approaching objects would "hit" them first. Accuracy was above chance probability except when two-object displays contained pictorial relative size information that contradicted relative time-to-contact (TTC) information. Mean d' and response time was greater, but mean efficiency (Barlow, 1978) was smaller with eight objects than with two. Performance was less effective when global expansion contradicted TTC information than when local expansion contradicted TTC. Results suggest that observers can judge relative TTC with as many as eight objects when certain sources of information are consistent with TTC and that observers rely on information other than, or in conjunction with, optical TTC. Also, the sources of visual information that affect performance may vary with set size, and identification (but not detection) judgments may be constrained by limited-capacity processing.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed2004

Time versus items in judgment of recency.

In the numerical judgment of recency (JOR) task, subjects judge how many items have intervened since the test item was previously presented. Two experiments were conducted to determine whether the basis of JOR is the age of the memory (time) or the number of intervening items. Subjects went through a long list that was made up of alternating fast blocks and slow blocks, but the block structure was disguised by probabilistic selection of a short or long intertrial interval. In both experiments, JOR was found to be a simple function of time, with no added contribution from the number of items.

Female↗
PubMed2005

Cross-cultural similarities and differences in North Americans' geographic location judgments.

We examined some potential causes of bias in geographic location estimates by comparing location estimates of North American cities made by Canadian, U.S., and Mexican university students. All three groups placed most Mexican cities near the equator, which implies that all three groups were influenced by shared beliefs about the locations of geographical regions relative to global reference points. However, the groups divided North America into different regions and differed in the relative accuracy of the estimates within them, which implies that there was an influence of culture-specific knowledge. The data support a category-based system of plausible reasoning, in which biases in judgments are multiply determined, and underscore the utility of the estimation paradigm as a tool in cross-cultural cognitive research.

Attitude↗
PubMed2005

Age-related differences in automatic stimulus-response associations: insights from young and older adults' parity judgments.

Young and older adults completed a parity judgment task (i.e., judging whether a target digit was odd or even) in which target numbers were preceded by masked prime numbers presented for 43 msec. Targets were either congruent (i.e., they had the same parity status as their primes) or incongruent (i.e., odd primes were paired with even targets, and even primes were paired with odd targets). Response times, percent errors, and event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded for all items to compare automatic stimulus-response association (ASRA) and congruence effects (i.e., better performance on congruent than on incongruent trials) across age groups. Two important original sets of findings were obtained in this sample of participants. First, both age groups showed ASRA effects in behavioral measures. Second, age-related differences were observed in amplitude, timing, and scalp distributions for each congruent and incongruent ERP. These findings have implications for furthering the understanding of ASRA effects and of general characteristics of cognitive processes affected (or not affected) by aging.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

A left hemisphere, but not right hemispace, advantage for tactual simultaneity judgments.

Hemispheric asymmetries for tactile simultaneity judgments were investigated in 34 dextral adults. Pairs of vibrotactile stimuli with simultaneous or successive onsets were delivered unilaterally to the left or right hand. Participants made a forced-choice, bipedal response, indicating whether a stimulus was simultaneous or successive. The effect of hemispatial attentional biases was investigated, using ipsilateral (arms uncrossed) and contralateral (arms crossed) hand placements. Trials presented to the right hand were associated with fewer errors and a trend for faster response times than were those presented to the left hand. There was no asymmetry in response bias. Manipulations of hemispace did not affect the right hand advantage. These results confirm the existence of a left hemisphere temporal-processing advantage but fail to demonstrate that the asymmetry is the result of a rightward attentional bias. The implications of these results for absolute and relative models of hemispheric specialization are discussed.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1995

When plausibility judgments supersede fact retrieval: the example of the odd-even effect on product verification.

In the present study, we examined the conditions that favor the plausibility judgment strategy over the retrieval strategy when we verify some statements. In particular, we examined the effect of odd-even status of numbers on subjects' verification of single-digit arithmetic problems. In Experiment 1, we explored how factors such as problem difficulty and stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) influence this effect in adults. In Experiment 2, we present evidence that this odd-even effect is also present in elementary school children, although it varies with the age of the children, the difficulty of the problems, and the SOA. We argue that the odd-even information is helpful in arithmetic verification tasks with difficult problems early in the verification processes and that the time course of these effects differs across ages. The present results are consistent with the view that the plausibility strategy is preferred over the retrieval strategy at an early stage of processing and with information that is not quickly accessible. Finally, we discuss the implications of the present experiments for understanding of single-digit arithmetic and for understanding the more general issue of how people coordinate use of multiple strategies.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1992

Importance of the kind of cue for judgments of learning (JOL) and the delayed-JOL effect.

The delayed-JOL effect is the finding in which judgments of learning (JOLs) are more accurate at predicting eventual recall when they are made a short time after study rather than immediately after study. The present research replicated this effect and found that the kind of cue that is used for JOLs is critical. In particular, following the study of stimulus-response paired associates, there is an extremely robust delayed-JOL effect when the cue for JOLs is the stimulus alone (every one of 45 subjects showed the effect); however, there is little, if any, delayed-JOL effect when the cue for JOLs is the stimulus-response pair. This finding has important implications for education: To have the greatest accuracy at predicting eventual recall, a person should make JOLs not immediately after study but, instead, shortly after study (i.e., delayed JOLs) with the cue for JOLs being the stimulus alone. The theoretical mechanisms for the delayed-JOL effect are currently unknown, but some speculations are offered.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

Primacy and frequency effects in absolute judgments of visual velocity.

In absolute judgment tasks, identical stimuli are rated higher (or lower) when presented in a series of more frequent small (or large) stimuli. Using visual stimuli differing in velocity, we show that this conventional frequency effect is largely modulated by the primacy effect--that is, by the stimuli occurring on the early trials of a run. In Experiment 1, a frequency-like primacy effect was obtained with equal-frequent velocities. Identical velocities were rated faster when mainly slow rather than fast ones occurred on initial trials. In Experiment 2, we contrasted the frequency effect and the primacy effect: In runs with frequent slow velocities, mainly fast ones occurred earlier, whereas in runs with infrequent slow velocities, mainly slow ones did so. Lack of differences of ratings in the two conditions suggests that the two effects canceled each other. In Experiment 3, when mainly frequent velocities occurred earlier, the conventional frequency effect was obtained. We conclude that the conventional frequency effect represents a combination of the primacy effect and the pure frequency effect.

Acceleration↗
PubMed1999

Domain differences in absolute judgments of category membership: evidence for an essentialist account of categorization.

There has been some debate about the correspondence between typicality gradients and category membership. The present study investigates the relationship between these two measures in the domains of animals and artifacts. Forty-two adults judged the degree of typicality or category membership of 293 animals and artifacts. The subjects' tendency for animals, but not for artifacts, was to make more absolute ratings on category membership (i.e., judging exemplars as definitely members or definitely not members of their respective category) than on typicality. More importantly, at almost every level of typicality, subjects were more likely to make absolute judgments of category membership for animals than for artifacts. These results indicate that people treat category membership of animals as relatively absolute (which best fits an essentialist model of categorization) and treat category membership of artifacts as relatively graded (which best fits a prototype model of categorization). These domain differences add crucial supporting evidence for claims about the domain-specificity of essentialism.

Cognition↗
PubMed1986

[Sequential dependencies in judgments of horizontal line lengths: application of attention band theory].

The experiment of category judgments of horizontal line lengths was performed in three conditions of stimulus presentation sequence, in order to examine whether the sequential dependencies of this type might be explained with the attention band theory which Green & Luce (1974) proposed. Nine undergraduate students served the experiment as a subject, three for each condition. The multiple regression analyses presented that in all conditions the sequential dependencies extended over at least four trials, and the coefficient of variation of response ratio Rn/Rn-k (k = 1-4) also showed the same results. Although Jesteadt, Luce, & Green (1977) stated that the attention band of loudness continued only one trial, the results of this experiment suggested that the attention band of horizontal line lengths continued four trials.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1992

[The effect of motivation on preschool children's sharing judgment and behavior].

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of motivation on preschool children's sharing judgment and behavior. In Experiment 1, 45 4-year-olds and 41 5-year-olds were asked whether they wanted to share seals in a fictional situation, and were observed whether they shared their seals in an actual situation. The main results indicated that the number of children who shared seals in the latter situation was smaller than those who judged to share seals in the former one. Especially there was a great difference regarding this point in 4-year-olds children. "Empathic orientation" motivated preschool children's sharing behavior, while "self-focused orientation" did not. In Experiment 2, 52 4-year-olds and 60 5-year-olds were divided into two empathic levels (middle, high) and two motivational cost levels (low, high) to examine the effects of "empathic orientation" and "self-focused orientation." The main results indicated that high motivational cost restrained children from sharing in an actual situation.

Child Behavior↗
PubMed1999

[On the validity of applying associative learning model to the acquisition process of human contingency judgment].

The assessment process of contingency between two binary events was examined in the present experiments using university students. Some researchers have obtained a learning curve in judging contingency and have thereby applied an associative model to an explanation of human contingency judgment. Other researchers, however, claimed that the task structure did not adequately reflect the structure of 2 x 2 contingency tables and failed to obtain learning curves. After having resolved methodological problems of task structure and procedure (Experiments 1 & 2), we demonstrated little evidence of learning curve in judging contingency (Experiment 3). These results were discussed in terms of associative viewpoints and rule-based models.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Changes in judgment of duration with different patterns of auditory information for individuals confined to bed.

A theoretical proposition that changes in the organization and structure of auditory information result in changes in temporal experience was tested in this study. Changes were measured in the judgment of duration of a 40-second interval that occurred in three different patterns of auditory information among individuals confined to bed. The sample consisted of 90 men and 90 women aged 18 to 35 years who had no known physical or mental health problems. Subjects rested in bed in a comfortable room for two and one-half hours. Each subject received one of three forms of auditory information-called decoded, coded, and ambient auditory information. At four periods during the 150 minutes of auditory information (25 minutes, 75 minutes, 120 minutes, 150 minutes) the subject was directed by a lighted sign to produce a 40-second interval by depressing a button. The button was connected to a microtimer which timed the interval to the nearest tenth second. None of the three hypotheses-1) that time would seem to pass more slowly in the coded than in the decoded condition: 2) that time would pass more slowly in the decoded than ambient condition: and 3) that as the period of bedrest progressed differences in duration experience would occur among the three groups--was supported by the data. The produced interval for ambient auditory information was expected to be the longest of the three groups, but the opposite effect occurred; it was the shortest. The significant overestimation that occurred in the ambient condition relative to the decoded condition appeared to be related to the methodological imposition of vigilance, lack of structuring information, and the condition of waiting. The coded auditory input did not effect changes in duration relative to the decoded and ambient auditory information as subjects were able to reorder the coded information.

Acoustic Stimulation↗
PubMed1975

The effects of provocation, intentions, and consequences on children's moral judgments.

Dutch boys 8 and 12 years old read brief stories about a harm doer whose intentions were either good or bad and whose actions resulted in either minor or serious injury to a victim. The harm doer had previously been either strongly provoked or not provoked by the victim. The older boys differentiated their evaluations of the harm doer's naughtiness on the basis of provocation and intentions, while the younger boys failed to differentiate their evaluations of the provoked harm doer on the basis of intentions. Both age groups strongly differentiated their judgments of the victim's naughtiness on the basis of his role as provoker, except when the victim was seriously injured by a bad-intentioned aggressor.

Aggression↗
PubMed1975

Dimensional salience and judgments of bigness by three-year-old children.

3-year-olds were shown triads of rectangles and asked to select the "big" one, where the biggest rectangle in each triad was neither the tallest nor the widest. Dimensional salience and response choice were highly related. In addition, as saliency of a particular dimension increased relative to the other dimension, significantly more responses were based on that dimension. The results support the notion that the young child does not rely on 1 specific dimension to make judgments of bigness but, rather, attends to the most salient differences among stimuli.

Child, Preschool↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Free viewing perceptual asymmetries for judgment of brightness and quantity: dependence on stimulus orientation.

Previous research has indicated that normals exhibit strong leftward biases during free-viewing perceptual judgments of brightness and quantity. When participants view two symmetrical objects and they are forced to choose which object appears darker or more numerous, participants usually select the stimulus with the relevant feature on the left side. The present study investigated the possibility that these perceptual asymmetries are dependent on scanning a stimulus horizontally across the midline by administering a task with two rectangular reversed stimuli presented either horizontally or vertically. When the stimuli were presented horizontally (crossing the midline), participants exhibited leftward biases, but these biases disappeared when the stimuli were presented vertically. This result supports the position that free-viewing perceptual asymmetries are dependent on scanning the stimuli across the midline.

Adolescent↗