Maternal responsiveness following differential pup treatment and mother-pup interactions.
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Animals↗
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Some effects of a split litter cross foster design applied to 15 day old rat pups.
Rat litters were divided and cross fostered on a postnatal Day 15 so that each mother had 4 of her own pups and 4 pups of a second litter, until weaning at 21 days. Daily weight and body temperature measurements made between Day 15 and 21 showed no differences between foster pups and pups who stayed with their biological mothers. However, by the age of 30 days, foster pups weighed less than pups reared by their own (biological) mothers; and foster pups at that age did not survive food deprivation as well as the pups reared by their biological mothers. In their Day 30 weights and the capacity to survive food deprivation, foster pups resembled pups that had been permanently separated from their mothers on postnatal Day 15. We conclude that the split cross foster design may introduce variability rather than reduce it. Nonetheless, this design may be useful in the experimental investigation of maternal behavior and mother-pup interactions in the rat.
Animals↗
Effects of mother-litter separation on later maternal responsiveness in the hamster.
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Animals↗
Effects of lambing induction on the sensitive period for the establishment of maternal behaviour in sheep.
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Animals↗
Effects of mother-litter separation and reunion on maternal aggression and pup mortality in lactating hamsters.
This study examined the effects of a 24 hr mother-litter separation on maternal aggression and pup mortality in hamsters. There were four lactating groups tested for aggression in their home cages on days 5 and 15 postpartum: a group that was separated from their litters for 24 hr, a group that was not separated from their litters and two 24 hr separation groups in which the litters were returned 30 and 120 min prior to the aggression test. Nonreceptive, estrous cycling animals were used as controls (tested twice, 10 days apart) and as intruders. Measures of aggression recorded during the 10 min tests included the number of attacks, fights, chases and intruder retreats. Pup mortality was examined in the 4 lactating groups and in two additional non-tested groups, one of which was separated from their litters for 24 hr. Lactating hamsters initiated significantly higher levels of aggression than control animals. Mother-litter separation (24 hr) significantly decreased levels of aggression and these levels were restored when litters were replaced 30 and 120 min prior to aggression tests. There were few differences in levels of aggression between days 5 and 15 of lactation. Pup mortality was significantly greater between days 5-6 and 15-16 of lactation among those groups that were separated from their litters compared to those groups that were not separated. Significantly higher mortality levels were found between days 7 and 15 of lactation among the 2 groups in which pups were returned prior to the aggression test compared to all other groups.
Aggression↗
Maternal regulation of the adrenocortical response in preweanling rats.
In the following studies, we investigated the effects of 24-h maternal deprivation on the infant's hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal system. Experiment 1 examined the effect of deprivation on the infant's corticosterone (CORT) response to adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH) injection. At all ages studied, deprivation resulted in a potentiation of the response. At some ages, deprived nontreated pups had higher CORT levels than nondeprived pups. Experiment 2 examined the ontogeny of the deprivation-induced stress response, and the capacity of the mother to inhibit it. From 8 days of age onwards, deprived animals showed a CORT response to saline injection that was either absent or far smaller in nondeprived pups. Saline-induced CORT secretion was diminished, or prevented, by returning the infant to its dam. Maternal reunion had no effect on ACTH-induced CORT elevations. Finally, Experiment 3 investigated the effects of deprivation over a more extended period of time. In maternally deprived pups, ACTH-induced CORT elevations persisted for at least 2 h following reunion, but by 6 h had returned to baseline. These data suggest that maternal factors are involved in the regulation of the responsiveness of the pup's hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal system.
Adrenal Cortex↗
Periparturient events in ovariectomized embryo transfer recipient mares.
Ovariectomized mares treated with progesterone have established and maintained pregnancy after embryo transfer. This study evaluated the ability of ovariectomized embryo transfer recipients to successfully undergo parturition, raise a foal, and return to a useful reproductive status. Periparturient events in three ovariectomized embryo transfer recipient mares and three intact mares were compared. All mares foaled normally. Mammary scores were similar for both groups and all mares produced sufficient colostrum and milk to allow normal growth of healthy foals. Plasma progesterone levels decreased to < 5 ng/ml by Day 4 post partum in both groups. Progesterone concentrations continued to decrease and remained at <1 ng/ml in ovariectomized mares, but increased after the first postpartum ovulation (Day 9 to 15) in intact mares. Endometrial involution as determined by histological evaluation was complete in ovariectomized mares by Day 10 post partum and in intact mares by Day 11 post partum. As assessed by palpation per rectum and clearance of bacteria from the uterus, uterine involution was similar in all mares. The three ovariectomized mares subsequently received embryos by transcervical transfer and two of them established pregnancy. These results indicate that normal parturition, lactation, maternal behavior and uterine involution are independent of ovarian function.
Journal Article↗
Web of deceit: a literature review of Munchausen syndrome by proxy.
Munchausen syndrome by proxy (MSBP) is a form of child abuse wherein the mother falsifies illness in her child through simulation and/or production of illness, and presents the child for medical care, disclaiming knowledge as to etiology of the problem. From the literature, 117 cases of MSBP were reviewed. The most common presentations of MSBP were bleeding, seizures, central nervous system depression, apnea, diarrhea, vomiting, fever, and rash. Short-term morbidity rate was 100%; long-term morbidity rate was 8%. Mortality rate was 9%. Failure to thrive was associated with MSBP in 14% of cases. All perpetrators of MSBP were the mothers. The origins of this type of aberrant maternal behavior remain abstruse, as do the long-term psychological effects on the child victims. Guidelines for medical, social service, and legal management are provided.
Adult↗
Pregnancy related changes of opiate receptors identified in rat uterine membranes by 3H-naloxone binding.
3H-Naloxone was used to demonstrate the presence of specific opiate binding sites in uterine membrane preparations of rats. 3H-Naloxone binding (0.41-27 nM) was found to be rapid, saturable and reversible showing two populations of binding sites with the characteristic of high (KD 2.2 nM; Bmax 46.6 fmol/mg prot.) and low (KD 18.1 nM; Bmax 143.7 fmol/mg prot.) affinity. The number and affinity of the binding sites labelled by 3H-naloxone in the uterus were measured in the rat at mid (14 days), late (21 days) pregnancy and at parturition. The high and low affinity recognition sites labelled by 3H-naloxone showed a consistent reduction during pregnancy and at parturition without changes in the affinity constant. We concluded that pregnancy and parturition are associated with significant changes in the number of the opiate receptors bound in the uterus by 3H-naloxone. This phenomenon which seems to be linked with the several pregnancy-related changes in the levels of endogenous peptides and hormones could be relevant to further explain the pregnancy related changes in pain perception and maternal behavior.
Animals↗
Trypsin inhibitor and maternal reunion increase plasma cholecystokinin in neonatal rats.
Intragastric soybean trypsin inhibitor increased plasma CCK bioactivity by 87% in nondeprived, 9-12-day-old rat pups. Reunion with the dam for 1 h after overnight maternal deprivation also increased plasma CCK significantly. These results demonstrate that CCK can be released from the small intestine of rats as early as postnatal day 9.
Animals↗
Psychosocial and clinical variables in pregnant adolescents. A survey of maternity home residents.
Substantial research exists about pregnant adolescents, but there are few studies focusing on this population in residential maternity homes. This survey was designed to gather data about demographic and clinical characteristics, self-esteem, and social support available to adolescents in two maternity homes in Los Angeles. Adolescents' attachment to their unborn fetus was also evaluated. The culturally diverse sample included 90 unmarried subjects between 14 and 19 years of age. Results suggest that adolescents in maternity homes possess many of the same attributes as pregnant adolescents in the larger community. Self-esteem scores of residents of the Self-Esteem Inventory (mean = 66.67) were similar to those reported in other studies of pregnant adolescents. There was great variation found in the quantity and quality of functional social support received by residents. Family (97.8%) and friends (78.8%) were identified as significant individuals in the social network of the residents. Although the majority of adolescents had not planned their pregnancy, their scores on the prenatal attachment questionnaire supported a positive affiliation with their fetus. Based on these findings, recommendations are offered for programs to facilitate the development of self-esteem and support-enhancing skills of pregnant adolescents living in residential maternity homes.
Adolescent↗
Oxytocin: neurobiologic considerations and their implications for affective illness.
1. Oxytocin is a nonapeptide hormone first isolated in the central nervous system in the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus. Recent studies show that oxytocin is also found in brain regions outside of the hypothalamus and sites of synthesis have been reported in peripheral steroidogenic organs as well. 2. Oxytocin is released from hypothalamic nerve terminals in the posterior pituitary for distribution in the systemic circulation, where it acts to stimulate uterine contraction during parturition and milk let-down during lactation. 3. Although a definitive role for oxytocin in CNS function has not been elucidated, studies in experimental animals suggest involvement in cognition, tolerance and adaptation, and in complex maternal behaviors. Similarly, although oxytocin's function in steroid-producing tissues is not fully established, recent in vitro data has shown that oxytocin can inhibit androgen and estrogen production, and thus may act in a local regulatory fashion. 4. This selective review will highlight some current ideas regarding the functional significance of oxytocin in the central nervous system and review available data concerning the regulation of oxytocin secretion in humans and its potential role in neuropsychiatric illness.
Animals↗
Personality characteristics and platelet MAO activity in women with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH).
Personality traits and platelet monoamine oxidase (MAO) activity were studied in 22 women, 17-34 years old, with prenatal virilization due to congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) (21-hydroxylase deficiency) and 22 healthy controls. The CAH group differed significantly on two of the eight scales of the Karolinska Scales of Personality (KSP), which have earlier shown significant gender differences. Both differences were in the masculine direction, with a high, male level, score for Detachment and a lower score for Indirect Aggression. The Detachment scale reflects distance in social relations, and has earlier been shown to be strongly gender differentiating. There was no significant difference in platelet MAO activity between the CAH group and the controls. Although an influence of psychosocial factors cannot be excluded, the results suggest a possible association between prenatal androgen exposure and the high Detachment score for the CAH group. Gender differences in empathy, affiliation motivation, intimacy and maternal behavior may be relevant parallels.
Adolescent↗
Cerebrospinal fluid and plasma concentrations of oxytocin and vasopressin during parturition and vaginocervical stimulation in the sheep.
Simultaneous blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples were taken from conscious sheep before, during and after parturition. Concentrations of plasma and CSF oxytocin were significantly elevated during contractions and particularly at birth. Mean prepartum CSF concentrations of oxytocin were around 55% of those found in plasma but postpartum they were up to 2-fold higher than those in plasma. Plasma concentrations of oxytocin were only significantly elevated, compared to prepartum levels, for 15 min postpartum whereas those in CSF were increased for the whole of the 120 min postpartum sampling period. Plasma, but not CSF, concentrations of arginine-vasopressin (AVP) were significantly raised during contractions and birth, and for 15 min postpartum. During the prepartum period CSF AVP concentrations were 67% of those found in plasma whereas at birth plasma levels were 10-fold higher than in CSF. In a separate experiment it was shown that 5 min of mechanical vaginocervical stimulation also stimulated significant increases in CSF and plasma oxytocin concentrations and in plasma vasopressin. Results support previous work suggesting an important role for central oxytocin release in the postpartum induction of maternal behavior and demonstrate that elevated concentrations of oxytocin in the CSF are present for a greater period than in blood. Elevated plasma AVP concentrations during contractions, birth or vaginocervical stimulation may be stimulated by stress associated with these stimuli.
Animals↗
Intracerebroventricular infusions of morphine, and blockade with naloxone, modify the olfactory preferences for pup odors in lactating rats.
Systemic morphine exposure disrupts both maternal behavior (MB) and postpartum aggression, possibly through alterations of olfactory preferences [29]. In the current studies, adult female rats were timed mated and implanted with a unilateral cannula in the lateral ventricle. On day 5 or 6 of lactation, the females were infused with either morphine (2.0 micrograms) or saline (5 microliters) (Experiment 1); or, they were infused with 2.0 micrograms morphine and saline or morphine plus 0.5 micrograms naloxone (Experiment 2). One hour later, they were exposed to bedding soiled by pups, or to clean bedding. The amount of time spent investigating the two bedding types was compared. Morphine produced an aversion to the odor of pups, relative to the saline condition, wherein the females expressed a preference for the odor of pups. Naloxone reversed the effect of the morphine, restoring the preference for pup odors in the females. Thus, morphine disruption of MB may be due to central action on olfactory sensory mechanisms.
Animals↗
Effects of hyperactivity of the maternal hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis during pregnancy on the development of the HPA axis and brain monoamines of the offspring.
Offspring of mothers with adrenal hyperactivity during pregnancy have been reported to have changes in brain monoamines and altered emotional, reactive, sexual and maternal behavior. Since the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is known to be involved in the expression of such behaviors and is itself under monoaminergic control, we examined the development of the HPA axis and brain monoamines in pups whose mothers had adrenal hyperactivity, reflecting administration of ACTH during the last third of their pregnancy. The adrenals of the experimental animals weighed less and had aberrant morphology. The abnormal histology was more pronounced in the adrenals of the experimental females than of the males, suggesting that females were more vulnerable to the prenatal treatment. In both experimental males and females, basal plasma corticosterone levels were higher compared to the controls, while after exposure to stress, experimental animals attained lower plasma corticosterone levels than the controls. In the brain of the experimental animals, dopaminergic activity appeared to be decreased, while serotonergic activity increased. Our results indicate that the prenatal treatment affected brain development in the offspring and as a consequence programmed the developing HPA axis in such a way as to hyperfunction under basal conditions, leading to its exhaustion and its inability to react properly to stress.
Adrenal Glands↗
Acute perinatal asphyxia at birth has long-term effects on behavioural arousal and maternal behaviour in lactating rats.
This study analysed the long-term consequences of an asphyctic event at birth on maternal behaviour and emotionality in rats. Pregnant Wistar rats were delivered by Caesarean section and the pups, still in the uterus horns, were placed into a water bath at 37 degrees C for periods of 0 (Caesarean delivery, CD) or 20 min (asphyxia, CD+20). Control subjects were born by vaginal delivery (VD). Subsequently, pups were given to surrogate mothers, weaned at 21 days, and mated at adulthood. After giving birth, differences in maternal competence and behavioural arousal were assessed observing: (i) maternal behaviour after reunion with the pups following a 3h separation, on postpartum day (PPD) 4; (ii) behaviour in an elevated plus-maze test, on postpartum day 7; and (iii) performance in a fear conditioning test, in which subjects learned to associate a conditional stimulus with an aversive unconditioned stimulus (postpartum days 7-8). Results indicate that subjects in the CD+20 group showed a deficit in maternal care, taking a longer time to retrieve the whole litter and often failing to retrieve all pups. Both CD and CD+20 groups showed higher behavioural activity in the plus-maze. In addition, when tested in the fear conditioning paradigm, the CD+20 group showed a lower latency to perform freezing behaviour in the auditory cue trial. The changes in behavioural arousal described suggest that the dopaminergic system may be a potential neurochemical target for an early hypoxic insult and indicate maternal behaviour as a useful endpoint to study the effects of early birth insult on brain function.
Acoustic Stimulation↗
Memory of early maltreatment: neonatal behavioral and neural correlates of maternal maltreatment within the context of classical conditioning.
BACKGROUND: While children form an attachment to their abusive caregiver, they are susceptible to mental illness and brain abnormalities. To understand this important clinical issue, we have developed a rat animal model of abusive attachment where odor paired with shock paradoxically produces an odor preference. Here, we extend this model to a seminaturalistic paradigm using a stressed, "abusive" mother during an odor presentation and assess the underlying learning neural circuit. METHODS: We used a classical conditioning paradigm pairing a novel odor with a stressed mother that predominantly abused pups to assess olfactory learning in a seminaturalistic environment. Additionally, we used Fos protein immunohistochemistry to assess brain areas involved in learning this pain-induced odor preference within a more controlled maltreatment environment (odor-shock conditioning). RESULTS: Odor-maternal maltreatment pairings within a seminatural setting and odor-shock pairings both resulted in paradoxical odor preferences. Learning-induced gene expression was altered in the olfactory bulb and anterior piriform cortex (part of olfactory cortex) but not the amygdala. CONCLUSIONS: Infants appear to use a unique brain circuit that optimizes learned odor preferences necessary for attachment. A fuller understanding of infant brain function may provide insight into why early maltreatment affects psychiatric well-being.
Animals↗