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PubMed2002

The developmental course of gender differentiation: conceptualizing, measuring, and evaluating constructs and pathways.

Gender differentiation is pervasive, and understanding how and why it develops is important for both theoretical and practical reasons. The work described here is rooted in constructivist accounts of gender differentiation. Past research provides considerable support for constructivist predictions concerning (a) developmental changes in gender attitudes and (b) the relation between gender attitudes and information processing. Little work, however, has addressed the more fundamental question of how children's developing gender attitudes about others are related to developing gender characterizations of self. The focus of the current Monograph is on this other-self relation during middle childhood. A brief review of past theory and empirical work on gender differentiation is provided. It is argued that a major explanation of the limitations and inconsistencies evident in earlier work may be traced to restrictions in the measures available to assess key constructs. A conceptual analysis of the specific limitations of past measures is presented. The Monograph then offers alternative models of the developmental relation between attitudes toward others and characterization of self (the attitudinal and the personal pathway models), and identifies conditions expected to influence the strength of the observed other-self relation. Four studies establish the reliability and validity of a suite of measures that provides comparable methods for assessing attitudes toward others (attitude measures, or AM) and sex typing of self (personal measures, or PM) in three domains: occupations, activities, and traits (or OAT). Parallel forms are provided for adults (the OAT-AM and OAT-PM) and for children of middle-school age, roughly 11-13 years old (the COAT-AM and COAT-PM). A fifth study provides longitudinal data from children tested at four times, beginning at the start of grade 6 (approximately age 11 years) and ending at the close of grade 7 (approximately age 13 years). These data are used to examine the developmental relation between children's sex typing of others and sex typing of the self, and to test the predictions concerning the factors hypothesized to affect the strength of the relation between the two types of sex typing. Overall, the data supported the conceptual distinctions among individuals' (a) gender attitudes toward others, (b) feminine self, and (c) masculine self, and, additionally, revealed some intriguing differences across domains. Interestingly, the data concerning the other-self relation differed by sex of participant. Among girls, analyses of concurrent relations showed that those girls who held fewer stereotypes of masculine activities for others showed greater endorsement of masculine items for self, a finding compatible with both the other-to-self attitudinal pathway model and the self-to-other personal pathway model. The prospective regression analyses, however, showed no effects. That is, preadolescent girls' gender attitudes about others did not predict their later self-endorsements, nor did self-endorsements predict later attitudes. Data from boys showed a strikingly different pattern, one consistent with the self-to-other personal pathway model: There was no evidence of concurrent other-self relations, but prospective analyses indicated that preadolescent boys who endorsed greater numbers of feminine traits as self-descriptive early in grade 6 developed increasingly egalitarian gender attitudes by the end of grade 7. The Monograph closes with discussions of additional implications of the empirical data, of preliminary work on developing parallel measures for younger children, and of the need to design research that illuminates the cognitive-developmental mechanisms underlying age-related changes in sex typing.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2002

[Comparison of three surgical approachs for cardiac carcinoma].

BACKGROUND & OBJECTIVE: The surgical approach for cardiac carcinoma are various. However, there was still controversial which one could resulting in is the best one to the middle-long term survival rate after the surgical operation. The current study was designed to explore the best surgical approach for cardiac carcinoma. METHODS: The authors analyzed 353 patients with cardiac carcinoma in Yangzhong People's Hospital. The survival rate and stump masculine rate among three surgery approach (improved epigastrium, left-chest, and epigastrium-chest groups) were compared. RESULTS: The five-year survival rate and stump masculine rate: epigastrium group were 46.2% and 1.46%; left-chest group were 37.6%, 1.64%; epigastrium-chest group were 57.6% and 2.08%; There was no significant difference among three groups(P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Different surgical approach have no obvious influences to middle-long survival rate and stump masculine rate, thus, the authors suggest the surgery approach should based on location and bound of focus and health condition of the patient.

Cardia↗
PubMed2005

Peer attitudes towards adolescent participants in male- and female-oriented sports.

This study examined gender stereotypes in peer ratings of femininity and masculinity for adolescent participants in three sports. Following a preliminary study of gender stereotyping of several sports, high school students rated unfamiliar cohorts each of whom was described in a single paragraph as either a male or female dedicated participant in one of three sports. A total of 12 different descriptive paragraphs were used in a 2 (race) x 2 (sex) x 3 (sport) design. Each of these paragraphs, although short, ascribed a variety of traits that could be seen by raters as the independent variables: name (initials only), age, race, gender, hours of practice per week, number of competitions/performances per year, sport, and self-confidence. For this reason, raters were highly unlikely to surmise that sex and sport were the primary independent variables in the study. As predicted, there was a consistent decrease in rated femininity and increase in masculinity for both male and female adolescent targets as they switched from participating in a "feminine" (ballet) to a neutral (tennis) to a "masculine" (karate) sport. These results suggest that sex stereotypes for certain sports may influence who elects to participate and how participants are viewed by others.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

The roles of sex, gender, and coping in adolescent depression.

This study investigated the roles of coping and masculinity in higher rates of depressive symptoms among adolescent girls, as compared to boys. A model was designed and tested through path analysis, which involved the variables of sex, gender, problem-focused coping, rumination, and distraction. The Reynolds Adolescent Depression Scale and the Bem Sex Role Inventory, as well as a measure of coping with general stressors was completed by 246 adolescents. Results showed that adolescent girls were more depressed than boys, and that girls used more emotion-focused and ruminative coping than did boys. Greater degrees of ruminative coping were related to high levels of depressive symptoms. Problem-focused and distractive coping were positively correlated with masculinity and negatively associated with depression. Surprisingly, girls were more likely to use problem-focused coping. Problem-focused and distractive coping were found to mediate the negative relationship between masculinity and depression.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed1990

Androgyny: a function of degree?

Related to the issue of sexism is the concept of psychological androgyny, or the lack of tendency toward masculine or feminine traits. Studies have examined psychological androgyny through administration of the BEM Sex-Role Inventory and the Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey. Whereas one researcher concluded that dental hygiene students are stereotypically feminine, another researcher reported the tendency toward traditionally masculine traits. Both researchers utilized samples consisting solely of baccalaureate students. This paper presents the issue of psychological androgyny, the impact that sex-typing has on the profession of dental hygiene, and the results of a study examining androgyny among dental hygiene students. Three hundred twenty-one first- and second-year dental hygiene students representing four geographic regions within the United States were sampled. The 60-item BEM Sex-Role Inventory was administered to determine the extent of masculinity, femininity, and androgyny within this sample. Comparisons were made by degree program, class status, and geographic location. The authors tested the hypothesis that baccalaureate degree-seeking dental hygiene students were more androgynous than associate degree-seeking dental hygiene students. Data were analyzed by a general linear model for unbalanced designs and chi-square to determine significance. Results indicated that students in all dental hygiene programs are most frequently sex-typed as feminine, with androgyny as the second most frequently sex-typed characteristic. There was a significant difference in psychological androgyny when comparing students by degree program. A greater number of baccalaureate degree-seeking students reflected an androgynous sex-typing.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed1989

The sexual differentiation of social play.

Sex differences in social play are quantitative and not qualitative, referring to frequency and not the form of the behaviors. Whereas increased perinatal exposure to exogenous testosterone masculinizes social play, experimental manipulations of androgen levels after this period (i.e. following critical periods for neuronal differentiation) apparently have no effect on the expression of social play. This effect appears to involve, at least in part, androgen receptor occupancy in the amygdala. In the rat, there is a prominent sex difference in nuclear-bound androgen receptors in the amygdala during the sensitive period for the masculinization of play-fighting. Moreover, testosterone implants directly into the amygdala during this period masculinize social play in females. Progesterone exposure reduces play-fighting in male rats, as does corticosterone. This latter effect may be mediated by corticosteroid receptors in the limibic brain. Perinatal androgen exposure may also be important in humans, since girls born with congenital adrenal hyperplasia diagnosed and treated at birth still show male-like patterns of play. Theories concerning the function of sex differences in social play emphasize either the social or motor learning functions. Juvenile male primate social rank correlates with number of peer social interactions, which predominantly take the form of play-fighting. Females on the other hand appear to spend less time play-fighting and spend more time waiting and competing for interactions with infants, i.e. play-mothering, whereby they acquire the motor skills necessary for handling infants. Such differences may reflect socio-biological and developmental cascades that are, in some way, initiated by perinatal hormonal events.

Animals↗
PubMed1987

[Growth in broiler chickens after the regulation of sex differentiation using tamoxifen].

We studied the influence of an embryonal application of antiestrogen tamoxifen on gonad differentiation and sex dimorphism during the growth of Slovgal chickens. A single application of 500 micrograms tamoxifen to the incubated eggs before the onset of gonad differentiation induced in pullets the growth of the right gonad, which usually develops only in cockerels. Comparing the size of both gonads it is clear that the above dose of antiestrogen had the 22.31% masculinizing effect. Morphological changes observed just after hatching correlated with the testosterone concentration in plasma. The pullets masculinized by tamoxifen had a significantly higher level of male hormone. The changes in sex differentiation were reflected in the altered growth of pullet bodies. With respect to the higher growth rate and more effective feed conversion, their growth can be appreciated as masculinized. The higher body weight at the end of seven-week fattening (4.25% in comparison with the control group of pullets) was due to the higher trunk weight. The growth was stimulated by tamoxifen application also in cockerels (5.57% increase in body weight) but it was not accompanied by any changes in feed conversion.

Animals↗
PubMed1986

Data suggesting that milk of early lactation period might be involved in sexual differentiation of rat brain.

The contribution of a hypothetic milk factor in the masculinization process of gonadotropin secretion pattern was investigated using a cross-fostering model. Adult female rats whose nipples had been previously excised were mated. At the time of delivery their pups were given to recipient dams that had given birth one week earlier. Pups remaining with their own (intact) mother served as control group. At the age of 37-39 days (birth = day 0) male rats from the experimental and the control groups were castrated and also control females were ovariectomized. Ten days later gonadectomized animals received ovarian grafts excised from 20-day-old rats. Four and seven days after transplantation the grafts were processed for histology. Corpus luteum formation suggests that male rats nursed by recipient dams did not undergo the masculinization process normally occurring during the first few days of postnatal life. In a separate experiment, male pups nursed by dams being at the early lactation (control) or at the midlactation period were decapitated on postpartum day 1 and serum testosterone levels were measured by RIA. Mean testosterone concentration was almost twice as high in the control group than in pups nursed by recipient dams of the midlactation period. These data suggest that milk of the early lactation period might be necessary for the normal masculinization process of the male rat.

Animals↗
PubMed1984

Men and women as parents: sex role orientations, employment, and parental roles with infants.

Mothers' and fathers' sex role orientations and employment situations were examined in connection with their involvement in child-oriented activities using a longitudinal research design. During interviews that took place within 3 months of their wedding dates, 34 couples completed questionnaires that measured their sex role attitudes, masculinity-femininity, and their skills and role preferences for performing a number of child-oriented activities. Approximately 1 year later, after the couples had become parents, they were interviewed about their employment situations and again about their child-care skills and role preferences for performing certain child-care tasks. During the 2- to 3-week period following the second interview, the couples were telephoned on 9 occasions and asked to report on the household tasks, leisure activities, and child-oriented activities they had performed during the 24-hour period that preceded each call. The findings showed that mothers' sex role attitudes before their infants' births predicted their role preferences after their babies were born, and these two factors, as well as mothers' involvement in the paid labor force, were related to the extent of their involvement in child-oriented activities. Mothers' masculinity and femininity, however, were unrelated to their parenting behavior. In contrast, fathers' work involvement was related only to the extent of their leisure activities with children. In addition, fathers' role preferences for performing child-care tasks and their perceived skill at such tasks (as measured both before and after their children's births) were related to the overall extent and the nature of their involvement in child-oriented activities. Fathers' role preferences were somewhat stable from before to after children's births, and fathers' preferences before their children were born predicted the mothers' preferences afterward. Neither fathers' sex-role attitudes nor their masculinity or femininity, however, predicted their activities with infants.

Adult↗
PubMed1981

Hormonal control of cell form and number in the zebra finch song system.

Administration of testosterone (T), 17 beta-estradiol (E2), or 5 alpha-dihydrotestosterone (DHT) to female zebra finch chicks (Poephila guttata) at hatching exerts effects on brain sexual differentiation. Within a telencephalic station (the nucleus robustus archistriatalis, RA) of the neural pathway which participates in the efferent control of song, masculinization of several indices of neuronal size is induced by exposure to T or E2. Within RA, a sensitive assay of a single neuron's sexually differentiated state is the diameter of its soma. By this criteria, all of the neurons within RA can be masculinized with a sufficient dose of T. As the dose of T is progressively decreased, the proportion of RA neurons which undergo the transition from female to male falls, while the magnitude of the change in soma size remains basically unaltered. Administration of T or DHT masculinizes the number of neurons in RA.

Animals↗
PubMed1980

A clinical and cytogenetic study of fifteen patients with 45,X/46XY gonadal dysgenesis.

The cytogenetic and phenotypic findings in 15 patients with 45,X/46,XY mosaicism are described. Six patients presented with delayed sexual development without masculinization. The remaining nine patients had varying degrees of masculinization, ranging from clitoromegaly to hypospadic male phenotypes. Cardiovascular/renal anomalies were detected in 2 of the 15 patients. Gonadoblastomas were present in two patients and did not appear to correlate with the degree of masculinization or percentage of 46,XY cells present. Structural Y chromosome abnormalities were seen in three of the 45,X/46,XY probands. MZ twinning occurred in one of the 45,X/46,XY sibships.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1995

Altered sexual partner preference in male ferrets given excitotoxic lesions of the preoptic area/anterior hypothalamus.

Numerous experiments suggest that perinatal exposure of male vertebrates to testosterone (T), or its estrogenic metabolites, masculinizes aspects of coital function, including males' characteristic preference to seek out and mate with a female as opposed to another male conspecific. Other research has shown that this perinatal action of sex steroids also masculinizes aspects of neuronal morphology in the medial preoptic area/anterior hypothalamus (mPOA/AH). We asked whether neurons of the mPOA/AH contribute to males' preference to mate with a female. The ferret is an ideal species in which to ask this question. When tested in a T-maze after gonadectomy and treatment with estradiol benzoate (EB), female ferrets prefer to approach and receive neck grips from a stimulus male whereas males prefer to approach and neck grip an estrous female. In the minority of trials when EB-treated males approach a stimulus male, they occasionally receive a neck grip to which they display receptive postures as opposed to agonistic behaviors. In Experiment 1 castrated, EB-treated male ferrets which received bilateral infusions of the NMDA excitotoxin, quinolinic acid aimed at the dorsomedial POA/AH, preferred to approach a stimulus male significantly more often than groups of control males which either received a sham lesion, received a unilateral mPOA/AH lesion or in which bilateral infusions of quinolinic aci produced no histologically detectible excitotoxic damage to the mPOA/AH. Males with bilateral mPOA/AH lesions also displayed neck gripping on a significantly lower percentage of trials than control males when they approached the stimulus female. Ovariectomized, EB-treated female ferrets with bilateral mPOA/AH lesions, like control females, preferred to approach and receive neck grips from a stimulus male. The males used in Experiment 1 had never experienced circulating levels of T characteristic of the breeding season. Therefore, in Experiment 2 prepubertally gonadectomized males and females were treated chronically with a high dose of T propionate (TP) and tested several times with a receptive female prior to brain surgery. Males which received bilateral excitotoxic lesions of the mPOA/AH neck gripped and mounted stimulus females significantly less than control males. Again, when given EB followed by T-maze tests of partner preference, males with bilateral mPOA/AH lesions, like sham-operated female controls, preferred to approach the sexually active stimulus male significantly more often than control males, which preferred to approach the stimulus female. Our results suggest that neurons in the mPOA/AH play an important role in the integration of sensory cues which determine heterosexual partner preference in the male ferret, in addition to facilitating masculine coital performance.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Gender labels and play styles: their relative contribution to children's selection of playmates.

The relative contribution of gender labels and play styles (masculine or feminine) in playmate selection was evaluated in 60 children between the ages of 4 and 8 years using a novel interview measure. In the interview, when targets' gender labels and targets' play styles were presented as independent dimensions, children showed predicted sex differences in preferences for gender labels and for play styles (including toys, rough-and-tumble play, and activity level). However, when targets' gender labels and targets' play styles were presented as competing dimensions, boys of all ages chose female targets with masculine play styles over male targets with feminine play styles. In contrast, younger girls (4-5-year-olds) chose female targets with masculine play styles, whereas older girls (6-8-year-olds) chose male targets with feminine play styles. This suggests possible sex differences in the contribution of gender labels and of play styles in the development of children's preferences for same-sexed playmates.

Age Factors↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Anomalies of the genitalia and in sex differentiation].

Out of four biological sexes (male, female, bisexuality, asexuality) world legislation acknowledges only two. Therefore, hermaphrodites and eunuchs have either male or female documents. To determine human sexual anomaly, it is necessary to define genetic (chromosomal), gonadal (hormonal), phenotypic, psychological and legal sexes. True hermaphroditism must be distinguished from a false one: true hermaphrodites have both female and male gonads (or gonadal tissue), false hermaphrodites are unisexual, but their sex organs resemble those of the opposite sex. Five degrees of masculinization of the external genitalia in false female hermaphrodites are specified. In masculinization degree IV female sex organs look like genitalia of males suffering from perineoscrotal hypospadias with unaffected urogenital sinus and cryptorchidism. Feminization of male external genitalia comprises three anomalies: perineoscrotal hypospadias, unaffected urogenital sinus and cryptorchidism. Three cases are described: a girl with masculinization of the external sex organs of the 5th degree, a 7-year-old child with true hermaphroditism and gonadal tumor, a true hermaphrodite aged 22 surgically treated to correct the sex to be a male.

Adult↗
PubMed1995

Effects of paternal absence on male adolescents' peer relations and self-image.

This study explores the extent to which adolescent males experience different peer adjustment and masculine self-image as a function of father deprivation. A sample of 40 middle school boys (20 father-present and 20 father-absent) rated each other on peer adjustment and masculine self-image. Results indicate that father-absent boys evidence a poorer sense of masculinity as well as poorer interpersonal relationships than do father-present boys.

Absenteeism↗
PubMed1995

[The evolution over time (1960-1990) of mortality and the ratio of males in bladder cancer in Spain].

A time series on the evolution of mortality and the masculinity attribute in vesical cancer in Spain (1960-1990) was prepared. The specific rates by age and sex by 100,000 inhabitants were calculated. To attain standardization the same study population was taken as the reference population. Overall mortality rates due to vesical cancer have increased progressively in a linearly ascending trend, though the slope in men is sharper that in women. The females cohort approaches that of males, but with a difference between them of 30 years. By age groups, the higher increase has occurred in those over 75-year old (113% men, 77% women). The masculinity attribute presents variations depending on the age group and decade considered (1.4-10.9). It is possible to establish three groups by masculinity attribute: 20-44 years (average 1.91), 45-69 years (average 7.8) and over 70 years (average 6.3).

Adult↗
PubMed1996

Peripubertal androgen imprinting of rat hepatic cytochrome P450 2C11 and steroid 5 alpha-reductase: pretranslational regulation and impact on microsomal drug activation.

To characterize the dose response and time course of peripubertal testosterone imprinting of rat hepatic CYP2C11 and steroid 5 alpha-reductase and to gain further insights into the mechanism and consequences of peripubertal androgen imprinting of these enzymes, prepubertally gonadectomized female rats were injected s.c. with testosterone enanthate (5 mumol/kg/day) on days 35 to 49 (peripubertal period) or days 81 to 89 (adulthood) and then sacrificed on day 90. Androgen treatment during the peripubertal or adult period increased hepatic microsomal testosterone 2 alpha-hydroxylase activity by 4- to 5-fold and decreased steroid 5 alpha-reductase activity by 30 to 50%. By comparison, androgen administration during both periods completely masculinized these two enzyme activities. Whereas shortening the duration of treatment to 5 days during the peripubertal and adult periods resulted in only a partial masculinization of these activities, reducing the dosage of testosterone enanthate from 5 mumol/kg/day to 2.5 mumol/kg/day during both the peripubertal (15 days) and adult periods (9 days) still fully masculinized testosterone 2 alpha-hydroxylase and steroid 5 alpha-reductase activities. Northern blot analysis showed that peripubertal and adult testosterone treatment of female rats increased hepatic CYP2C11 mRNA levels, decreased steroid 5 alpha-reductase mRNA levels and did not change CYP2C6 mRNA levels. Enhanced cyclophosphamide 4-hydroxylation and ifosfamide 4-hydroxylation was found in liver microsomes isolated from adult female rats exposed to testosterone during puberty and adult life. In contrast to once daily subcutaneous injections, continuous testosterone release via subcutaneous implant was ineffective in producing the long-term changes in testosterone 2 alpha-hydroxylase and steroid 5 alpha-reductase activities. Overall, the present study establishes that peripubertal androgen imprinting of CYP2C11 and steroid 5 alpha-reductase can be achieved after daily subcutaneous testosterone administration. This occurs by a pretranslational mechanism(s), which lead to long-lasting effects on microsomal drug activation.

3-Oxo-5-alpha-Steroid 4-Dehydrogenase↗
PubMed1982

Fetal and maternal virilization associated with pregnancy. A case report and review of the literature.

A masculinized female infant was born to a mother who had virilizing signs dating from the fourth month of pregnancy. Serum 17 alpha-hydroxyprogesterone, dehydroepiandrosterone, and testosterone levels were all normal in the infant. Maternal testosterone level was markedly elevated one week post partum. Dexamethasone phosphate suppression was normal. Human chorionic gonadotropin stimulation five weeks post partum revealed further elevation of high baseline free and total testosterone levels. Free and total testosterone levels 30 weeks post partum were normal, and all maternal virilizing signs had regressed with the exception of her deepened voice. The child has had no progression of masculinization. The mother is believed to have had a luteoma of pregnancy.

Adult↗