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PubMedDate not supplied

Cueing into infant pain.

Unfortunately the history of pain management in infant care has included decades of inadequate analgesia for a wide range of medical procedures, including major surgery. This was justified in part on fear of drug and analgesic risks to the infant, as well as the commonly held belief that infants do not respond to, or remember, painful experiences. Today we understand that infant pain is encoded into observable manifestations through which an infant communicates behavioral and physiological changes such as altered vital signs, characteristic cries, and facial expressions. The purposes of this article are to (1) describe infants' physiological and behavioral responses to pain and its adverse effects, (2) review pharmacologic and nonpharmacologic infant pain management modalities and reliable pain assessment tools for use in clinical practice, and (3) educate healthcare professionals about the importance of assessment and management of infant pain.

Analgesia↗
PubMed2006

Why don't they just let it go?

Discrepancies between what children expect about physical causality (indexed by looking time) and how they act on that knowledge have led to criticisms of claims about what infants "know." Baillargeon [Baillargeon, R. (1999). Young infants' expectations about hidden objects: A reply to three challenges. Developmental Science, 2, 115-163] advocates examining more tasks before revising views of early cognitive development. We report another discrepancy which suggests an additional indicator of what is salient for preverbal infants. While examining the Uzgiris-Hunt test performances of 40 children (26 females), 7.6-26.9-months-old, infants appeared captivated by the bouncing of a small rubber ball. However, most infants reproduced the motion of the bounce event itself, repeatedly hitting the ball against the table, rather than the experimenter's action (dropping). Comparing performances of those who did and did not imitate the drop, two possibly interrelated interpretations remained consistent with the data: infants perform goal-directed imitation of interesting phenomena, perhaps because they believe they must apply force to make them happen.

Child, Preschool↗
PubMed2005

Age-related changes in deferred imitation between 6 and 9 months of age.

Six- and 9-month-old human infants were tested in a deferred imitation paradigm in which an experimenter performed a single action with a novel object. Although infants of both ages imitated the action when tested immediately, only the 9-month-olds exhibited imitation after a 24-h delay.

Aging↗
PubMed1997

Infant sensitivity to deviations in dynamic facial-vocal displays: the role of eye regard.

Do young infants appreciate the intentionality of adult interactors? In view of recent speculation that infants are innately sensitive to eye direction and that communicative intent is conveyed in part by attentional cues, the reactions of 3- and 5-month infants were compared to video episodes of normally responsive women who either appeared or did not appear to make eye contact. Across three experiments, lack of eye contact was achieved by either averting the eyes (E), averting the head and eyes (H&E), closing the eyes (ECL), or averting the head alone (H). Three-month-olds smiled less at H&E, H, and ECL, but not at E, relative to frontal faces, indicating sensitivity to head but not to eye orientation. By contrast, 5-month-olds smiled less at H&E, E, and ECL, but not at H, indicating sensitivity to both head and eye orientation. The implications of the data for mentalist views of infant social behavior are discussed.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

The relationship between physiological and behavioral measures of stress in preterm infants.

OBJECTIVE AND DESIGN: The purpose of this exploratory descriptive analysis was to explore relationships among physiological stress, behavioral stress, and motor activity cues in preterm infants when they were not being handled or disturbed, and to determine whether there were differences between younger and older preterm infants in these variables or relationships. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: The convenience sample included 42 preterm infants who had been 27 to 33 weeks gestational age at birth and were from 6 to 19 days old at the time of data collection in the neonatal intensive-care unit. MEASURES: In each 10-minute observation, heart rate (HR) and oxygen saturation (O2 sat) levels were recorded every 5 seconds, and observational measures of behavioral distress and motor activity were recorded twice a minute. The physiological data were coded to reflect the percentage of each 10-minute period during which HR levels were less than 100 bpm or more than 200 bpm or O2 sat levels were abnormally low (less than 90 mg%). Data were analyzed with correlational and general linear mixed models procedures. RESULTS: Stress cues and motor activity were more often related to low levels of O2 sat than to low or high HR. Physiological status was more often related to motor activity than to stress cues. Few differences in the relationships were observed between younger and older preterm infants. CONCLUSION: Although these results are preliminary, they suggest that neonatal nurses should monitor preterm infants' behavioral stress and motor activity cues in response to caregiving and minimize stimuli that evoke stress responses linked to physiological instability.

Female↗
PubMed2000

Effects of gesture and target on 12- and 18-month-olds' joint visual attention to objects in front of or behind them.

Factors affecting joint visual attention in 12- and 18-month-olds were investigated. In Experiment 1 infants responded to 1 of 3 parental gestures: looking, looking and pointing, or looking, pointing, and verbalizing. Target objects were either identical to or distinctive from distractor objects. Targets were in front of or behind the infant to test G. E. Butterworth's (1991b) hypothesis that 12-month-olds do not follow gaze to objects behind them. Pointing elicited more episodes of joint visual attention than looking alone. Distinctive targets elicited more episodes of joint visual attention than identical targets. Although infants most reliably followed gestures to targets in front of them, even 12-month-olds followed gestures to targets behind them. In Experiment 2 parents were rotated so that the magnitude of their head turns to fixate front and back targets was equivalent. Infants looked more at front than at back targets, but there was also an effect of magnitude of head turn. Infants' relative neglect of back targets is partly due to the "size" of adult's gesture.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Social cognition in the first year.

Although the study of infancy has answered many important questions about the human capacity for social cognition, the relatively young field of developmental social cognition is far from reaching its adulthood. With the merging of developmental, behavioral and neurocognitive sciences, some growing pains are in store. New work demonstrates that research into early social cognitive development must integrate various research fields and methods in order to achieve a more robust understanding of the nature and parameters of human social cognition.

Attention↗
PubMed1998

The relation of change in maternal interactive styles to the developing social competence of full-term and preterm children.

This study evaluated the changing nature of mothers' interactive behaviors to understand alterations in children's social development across 6, 12, 24, and 40 months of age. Social skills were observed during daily activities and toy play in the home for medically high risk (HR; n = 73) and low risk (LR; n = 114) very low birthweight (VLBW) preterm and full-term (FT; n = 112) children. Variations in mothers' responses to children's changing capabilities predicted rates of change in children's social skills. For example, mothers who showed higher levels of maintaining measured across 6 to 40 months had children who displayed greater increases in initiating, but this was more apparent in daily activities than toy play and for the VLBW children compared to the FT children. Those VLBW children at the highest degrees of biological risk displayed faster gains in initiating than the other groups when their mothers provided even greater levels of support. Results demonstrate the importance of using methodologies that test more complex models of growth when evaluating parent-child relations.

Child Development↗
PubMed1990

Comparability of the Vineland Social Maturity Scale and the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale--survey form with infants evaluated for developmental delay.

The Vineland Social Maturity Scale and its revision, the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale-Survey Form, were evaluated with infants referred for suspected developmental delay. Since the latter is being used more often by psychologists in evaluation and placement of children in the age group of birth to two years, comparative studies must ensure appropriate placement of children observed to have developmental delays. The present study indicated significantly higher over-all adaptive functioning on the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale-Survey Form for 33 black and 11 white infants of mean age 12 mo. than on the original Vineland scales. Substituting the Survey Form for the original Vineland scales when evaluating developmentally delayed infants is questionable. These results are also noteworthy in that children whose Vineland Social Maturity scaled scores make them eligible for special services would be excluded if the revised form were used in the evaluation process.

Child, Preschool↗
PubMed1996

Infants' responses to frustrating situations: continuity and change in reactivity and regulation.

We examined continuity, stability, and change in behaviors reflecting infant reactivity and regulation. Healthy infants were observed in laboratory situations designed to elicit frustration when they were 5 (N = 87) and 10 months of age (N = 82). Behaviors indicative of reactivity included objective ratings of average intensity cry, peak intensity cry, and latency to cry. In addition, durations of orienting, avoidant, and nonnegative communicative behaviors were assessed as measures of regulation at each age. Results showed that several behaviors changed in level over time. In addition, Confirmatory Factor Analysis revealed both structural continuity and discontinuity: Behaviors were organized into 2 similar factors at 5 and 10 months (Reactivity and Regulation), but the relation between reactivity and regulation became increasingly independent over time, such that reactivity and regulation were negatively correlated at 5 months but not at 10 months. Finally, model-fitting revealed cross-dimension but not within-dimension stability (5-month reactivity predicted 10-month regulation).

Female↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Developmental changes in imitation from television during infancy.

Infants' (N = 276) ability to learn from television under seminaturalistic conditions was examined in five experiments with 12-, 15-, and 18-month-olds. In all experiments, an adult performed a series of specific actions with novel stimuli. Some infants watched the demonstration live, and some infants watched the same demonstration on television from prerecorded videotape. Infants' ability to reproduce the target actions was then assessed either immediately or after a 24-hour delay. Infants of all ages exhibited imitation when the actions were modeled live. There were age-related and task-related differences, however, in infants' ability to imitate the same actions modeled on television. The role of perceptual, attentional, and cognitive development in the ability to learn from television is discussed.

Child Development↗
PubMed1993

[The development of visual co-action in infancy].

The purpose was to examine (1) whether infants are capable of imitation or not and (2) to assess their ability for information processing, specifically for visual perception. Twenty-one infants were presented four kinds of facial expressions (tongue protrusion, opened mouth, mouth protrusion and eye blink) at the ages of six, ten, and fourteen weeks. Infants' responses were videotaped and analyzed. Their behavior indicated that six-week-olds could not differentiate between the four stimuli. They could not imitate the facial expressions, because their perception did not differentiate the stimuli sufficiently yet. Responses by ten- and fourteen-week-olds indicated that their perceptual processes had developed sufficiently to differentiate stimuli, and make some matching behaviors with the processed information. Some matching responses, open mouth and mouth protrusion, were less frequent at fourteen weeks than at ten weeks. However, the overall matching responses were greater among fourteen than ten week olds. Apparently with the development of perceptual processes, matching responses also emerge.

Child Behavior↗
PubMed2006

[Oppositional behavior in children and adolescents].

Opposition is a natural and beneficial process for children to shape their personality, it is a necessary step in their own and parents' life. It challenges the five rules governing children's life: parents' educational principles, school constraints, social rules, rules with "peers" and children's own rules. However, opposition can become pathological: symptoms of oppositional behaviors include defying requests, psychosomatic disorders in infants, offending behavior and oppositional defiant disorder. It is essential to identify them, encourage active family participation and look for a coexisting psychological condition. Oppositional disorders should be managed rapidly to prevent them from becoming chronic or evolving towards oppositional defiant or conduct disorders.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Interaction and imitation deficits from infancy to 4 years of age in children with autism: a pilot study based on videotapes.

The present study investigated the influence of developmental level on interaction and imitation in infants and young children with autism on the basis of family videos and filmed consultation. The sample comprised 18 children with autism divided into groups according to their developmental quotient (DQ>50 and DQ<50). A quantitative evaluation was performed on video observations at four periods (10-12 months, 16-18 months, 24-26 months, after 4 years) using scales appropriate for the evaluation of interaction and imitation impairments. The findings showed that, at a very early age, infants later diagnosed as having autistic disorder show different intensities of interaction and imitation deficits according to developmental level.

Autistic Disorder↗
PubMed1991

Behavioral competence among mothers of infants in the first year: the mediational role of maternal self-efficacy.

This study tests the idea that mothers' self-efficacy beliefs mediate the effects on parenting behavior of variables such as depression, perceptions of infant temperamental difficulty, and social-marital supports. Subjects were 48 clinically depressed and 38 nondepressed mothers observed in interaction with their 3-13-month-old infants (M = 7.35 months). As predicted, maternal self-efficacy beliefs related significantly to maternal behavioral competence independent of the effects of other variables. When the effects of self-efficacy were controlled, parenting competence no longer related significantly to social-marital supports or maternal depression. In addition, maternal self-efficacy correlated significantly with perceptions of infant difficulty after controlling for family demographic variables. These results suggest that maternal self-efficacy mediates relations between maternal competence and other psychosocial variables and may play a crucial role in determining parenting behavior and infant psychosocial risk.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

Gender differences in emotional expressivity and self-regulation during early infancy.

Eighty-one 6-month-old infants and their mothers were videotaped in Tronick's face-to-face still-face paradigm to evaluate gender differences in infant and maternal emotional expressivity and regulation. Male infants had greater difficulty than female infants in maintaining affective regulation during each episode, including the still face. Mother-son dyads had higher synchrony scores than mother-daughter dyads but took longer in repairing interactive errors. In addition, maternal affect, matching, rate of change between matching and mismatching states, and synchrony in the play preceding the still face differentially mediated male and female infants' responses to the still face and reunion play. The developmental implications of these gender differences are discussed.

Adult↗