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PubMed2006

[Clinical thermometry--theory and critical approach].

The assessment of fever is complex. It must not only focus on the patient in question. Rather, as a first factor to be considered, clinical thermometry has its technical and methodological problems. Every method has its own pitfalls. Second, any assessed body temperature reflects a "local" body temperature which, again, is affected by many factors. In addition, physiological set points of normal body temperature vary among individuals, and, even in a given individual, body temperature has its physiological variations. In all, intra- and interindividual variabilities in measured "normal" body temperature are large (< 2 degrees C) which makes it difficult to define normality. No question, all the factors mentioned are equally involved when body temperature is assessed in the febrile patient. Results (particularly those of tympanic measurements) may be deceptive and must be interpreted with scrutiny in the broad context of the patient assessment. In adults, fever should be measured by the sublingual method, in the non-cooperating patient, in the newborn and in toddlers rectally.

Adult↗

PubMed2001

In search of realistic optimism. Meaning, knowledge, and warm fuzziness.

Is it better to be realistic or optimistic? A realistic outlook improves chances to negotiate the environment successfully, whereas an optimistic outlook places priority on feeling good. But are realistic and optimistic outlooks necessarily in conflict? The author suggests that the fuzzy nature of accuracy typically places only loose boundaries on what it means to be realistic. As a result, there are many forms of optimism that do not, in principle, yield unrealistic assessments. Nevertheless, there remain numerous "optimistic biases" that do involve self-deception, or convincing oneself of desired beliefs without appropriate reality checks. The author describes several ways that realistic and unrealistic optimism can be differentiated and explores the impact of this distinction for current views of optimism. This critique reveals how positive psychology may benefit from a focus on personal meaning and knowledge as they relate to making the most of life.

Affect↗

PubMed1997

When 3-year-olds pass the appearance--reality test.

Sixty-eight 3-year-olds received a standard appearance-reality task along with either a trick task, in which the appearance question was placed in the context of a deceptive game, or a reduced information processing task, in which a dual object (e.g., a sponge-rock) was presented along with an object that matched the dual object's identity (a sponge) and one that matched the dual object's appearance (a rock). Children were more likely to pass either the trick or reduced information processing task and fail the standard than the reverse. Thus, 3-year-olds can grasp the distinction between appearance and reality (a) when their goal is to trick someone, which may prime them to think about the other's mental state, and (b) when they do not need to held conflicting object identities in mind at the same time.

Child Development↗

PubMed1975

Perseverance in self-perception and social perception: biased attributional processes in the debriefing paradigm.

Two experiments demonstrated that self-perceptions and social perceptions may persevere after the initial basis for such perceptions has been completely discredited. In both studies subjects first received false feedback, indicating that they had either succeeded or failed on a novel discrimination task and then were thoroughly debriefed concerning the predetermined and random nature of this outcome manipulation. In experiment 2, both the initial outcome manipulation and subsequent debriefing were watched and overheard by observers. Both actors and observers showed substantial perseverance of initial impressions concerning the actors' performance and abilities following a standard "outcome" debriefing. "Process" debriefing, in which explicit discussion of the perseverance process was provided, generally proved sufficient to eliminate erroneous self-perceptions. Biased attribution processes that might underlie perserverance phenomena and the implications of the present data for the ethical conduct of deception research are discussed.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1976

Machiavellianism in patients and their children.

The role of the family in the development of Machiavellianism was examined in this study. High- and low-Machiavellian sixth graders played a bluffing game. Their parents completed Machiavellian belief measures. The Machiavellianism of fathers and mothers was positively related to their children's success at deceiving others but not at seeing through others' attempts at deception. In addition, fathers' Machiavellianism was positively related to their children's Machiavellian beliefs. These data support a modeling hypothesis for the development of Machiavellianism. Unexpectedly, the children's own behaviors and beliefs were unrelated. This pattern of results suggests that a child's manipulative behaviors and beliefs are learned separately and only become consistent over time.

Attitude↗

PubMed1996

Factor structure of mental health measures.

This study investigated the factor structure of 18 scales that measure personal growth, subjective well-being, stress-resistant personality, self-deceptive positivity, and demographics. The sample of 338 persons was drawn from university students and community residents. A principal-components analysis with oblique rotation found a large factor for measures of subjective well-being as well as smaller factors for measures of personal growth, gender and age, and personality integration and education. Results provided support for the hypothesis that subjective well-being and personal growth are related, but not identical, constructs. Implications are discussed.

Adult↗

PubMed1999

Fuzziness of nonverbal courtship communication unblurred by motion energy detection.

A new method for the assessment of qualitative description of nonverbal behavior (automatic movie analysis) is introduced. This model-free method does not use any assumptions on the structure and organization of nonverbal behavior. Cross-cultural comparison (Germany, Japan) of unobtrusively filmed initial interactions between 2 opposite-sex strangers revealed no consistent courtship repertoire of directly observable behavior categories. Furthermore, an extensive analysis of gaze behavior and speech revealed differences between the countries but also showed no consistent relation to interest. Motion energy detection demonstrated in both cultures that female movement quality score (number of movements, duration, size, speed, and complexity) covaries with female interest. This effect is in concordance with the theory that in early stages of interactions manipulative efforts occur in order to avoid possible deception in high-risk situations.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1999

Moral hypocrisy: appearing moral to oneself without being so.

How can people appear moral to themselves when they fail to act morally? Two self-deception strategies were considered: (a) misperceive one's behavior as moral and (b) avoid comparing one's behavior with moral standards. In Studies 1 and 2 the authors documented the importance of the 2nd strategy but not the 1st. Among participants who flipped a coin to assign themselves and another participant "fairly" to tasks, even a clearly labeled coin that prevented misperception did not produce a fair result (Study 1). Inducing behavior-standard comparison through self-awareness did (Study 2). Study 3 qualified the self-awareness effect: When moral standards were not salient before acting, self-awareness no longer increased alignment of behavior with standards. Instead, it increased alignment of standards with behavior and produced less moral action. Overall, results showed 3 different faces of moral hypocrisy.

Adult↗

PubMed2003

The validity of psychophysiological detection of information with the Guilty Knowledge Test: a meta-analytic review.

The authors performed a meta-analysis based on 169 conditions, gathered from 80 laboratory studies, to estimate the validity of the Guilty Knowledge Test (GKT) with the electrodermal measure. The overall average effect size was 1.55, but there were considerable variations among studies. In particular, mock-crime studies produced the highest average effect size (2.09). Three additional moderators were identified: Motivational instructions, deceptive ("no") verbal responses, and the use of at least 5 questions were associated with enhanced validity. Finally, a set of 10 studies that best approximated applications of the GKT under optimal conditions produced an average effect size of 3.12. The authors discuss factors that might limit the generalizability of these results and recommend further research of the GKT in realistic setups.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

Social motives and strategic misrepresentation in social decision making.

In 4 experiments, the authors studied the influence of social motives on deception and strategic misrepresentation. In a newly developed information provision game, individuals faced a decision maker whose decision would affect both own and other's outcomes. By withholding information or by giving (in)accurate information about payoffs, participants could try to influence other's decision making. Less accurate and more inaccurate information was given when the decision maker was competitive rather than cooperative (Experiment 1), especially when participants had a prosocial rather than selfish value orientation (Experiments 3 and 4). Accurate information was withheld because of fear of exploitation and greed, and inaccurate information was given because of greed (Experiment 2). Finally, participants engaged in strategic misrepresentation that may trick competitive others into damaging their own and increasing the participant's outcomes.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

Reactions to counterstereotypic behavior: the role of backlash in cultural stereotype maintenance.

Social and economic sanctions for counterstereotypical behavior have been termed the backlash effect. The authors present a model of the role of backlash in cultural stereotype maintenance from the standpoint of both perceivers and actors. In Experiments 1 and 2, participants lost a competition to either atypical or typical men or women and subsequently showed greater tendency to sabotage deviants. Moreover, undermining deviants was associated with increased self-esteem, suggesting that backlash rewards perceivers psychologically. Experiment 3 showed that gender deviants who feared backlash resorted to strategies designed to avoid it (e.g., hiding, deception, and gender conformity). Further, perceivers who sabotaged deviants (Experiment 2) or deviants who hid their atypicality (Experiment 3) estimated greater stereotyping on the part of future perceivers, in support of the model's presumed role for backlash in stereotype maintenance. The implications of the findings for cultural stereotypes are discussed.

Adult↗

PubMed1993

Contextual sources of information and responses to animal communication signals.

The response of signal recipients depends on information found in the signal itself and on other information sources known collectively as context. Context is the set of events, conditions, and changeable recipient characteristics that modify the effect of a signal on recipients' behavior. Sources of contextual information include (a) the characteristics of the recipient and (b) sources external to the recipient (the signaler and the setting). Contextual information is most commonly used when the signal itself does not provide enough information for the recipient to behave adaptively. The signal's referent may be ambiguous or deceptive, or recipients may need additional information to fine-tune their responses. When animal signals were thought to be information poor, contextual information was seen as being critically informative. Animal signals are now known to be much more informative, but even information-rich systems, such as human language, depend heavily on contextual sources of information.

Animal Communication↗

PubMed1992

Ontogeny of chick responses to maternal food calls in the Burmese red junglefowl (Gallus gallus spadiceus).

Burmese red junglefowl (Gallus gallus spadiceus) chicks were reinforced at 5 days old with a mealworm at the end of a runaway in the presence of a maternal food call. Two food calls were used, one made to a highly preferred food item (a mealworm) and one made to a less preferred food item (chick crumbs). Chicks initially approached the food call made to the mealworm faster regardless of reinforcement contingencies, but by the 3rd day of training chicks responded faster to the call that was reinforced. These results indicate that functional experience can modify preexisting response tendencies to food-calling stimuli. We discuss the implications of these results for the interpretation of published accounts that chickens use food calls deceptively.

Aging↗

PubMed1994

Learning to outwit a competitor in mangabeys (Cercocebus torquatus torquatus).

To investigate whether monkeys would be able to acquire the location of hidden food from the experimenter and later from an informed conspecific, a group of 7 mangabeys (Cercocebus torquatus torquatus) was tested in an experimental design comparable to Menzel's (1974) with chimpanzees. Food was hidden in the presence of particular animals. An informed young male repeatedly lost his food to a dominant male. Accordingly, the young male developed a pattern, when he alone was informed, of moving in an indirect route to the goal, which generally functioned to mislead the dominant male to the young male's advantage. When the dominant male was also informed, the young male observed the dominant male taking the food or headed straight to the remaining hidden goal. His taking an indirect route, when he alone was informed, cannot therefore be considered his expected response to a competitive situation but rather is a case of tactical deception.

Animal Communication↗

PubMed2002

Natural killer cell activation in mice and men: different triggers for similar weapons?

The signaling pathways that regulate B and T lymphocytes are remarkably conserved between humans and mice. However, recent evidence suggests that the pathways regulating natural killer (NK) cell activation may actually differ between these two species. We discuss the controversies in the field and propose that this divergence could be deceptive: despite some clear differences between human and mouse NK cell receptors, the many ways of activating NK cells and their functions may well be conserved.

Animals↗

PubMed2005

Australian consumers are sceptical about but influenced by claims about fat on food labels.

OBJECTIVES: To explore the beliefs and attitudes of Australian consumers to claims about fat made on the labels of packaged food. DESIGN: Content analysis of transcripts from focus group discussions. SUBJECTS: A total of 26 female and 10 male participants aged 20-80 y, recruited by advertisement into six focus groups, stratified by age, sex and health status. RESULTS: Awareness of claims about fat was high in this sample of Australians and participants admitted that they influenced their purchase decisions. The most preferred form of claim was 'X% fat free'. Claims were considered most useful on foods that were high in fat. There was considerable scepticism about all nutrient claims, and consumers preferred to check claims about fat against the values in the nutrition information panel. Many claims were seen as advertising that could be misleading, deceptive or confusing. While claims about fat might prompt product trial, factors such as price, taste, naturalness, as well as other nutritional factors, also influenced purchase decisions. Some consumers believe low fat claims encourage over consumption of foods. CONCLUSIONS: Changes to regulations governing nutrition claims on food labels should be made to enhance their credibility and support their role in assisting consumers to make healthier food choices.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

Physicians' refusal to resuscitate at borderline gestational age.

Most neonatologists believe there is a minimal gestational age, below which it is appropriate to refuse to provide resuscitation or intensive care. Determination of this threshold should involve knowledge of the outcome data, but also an understanding of the potential for misuse of these data. In particular, there is a risk of deception, of the parents and of ourselves, due to the uncertainty of the true gestational age, and the "self-fulfilling prophecy" that may occur when a center refuses to try below a certain gestational age because they have had no survivors below that age. Finally, any refusal to treat requires ethical justification. Concepts such as futility and patient's best interest should play a role in the determination of the gestational age threshold, applied in light of the data's inherent weaknesses.

Adult↗

PubMed1998

Radiological features of primary intra-osseous carcinoma of the jaws. Analysis of the literature and report of a new case.

OBJECTIVES: To analyse the clinical and radiological features of primary intra-osseous carcinoma of the jaws (PIOC). MATERIAL AND METHODS: Twenty-four cases (23 from the literature and one new case) of PIOC were reviewed. RESULTS: Patient's age at time of diagnosis ranged from 4-76 years, (mean 50 years). Male to female ratio was 1.7:1. Most lesions (79%) were in the mandible and of these, 95% were in the posterior area, approximately 70% of the maxillary lesions were in the anterior region and crossed the midline. In 87% of the cases PIOC was radiolucent; the remainder were mixed radiolucent-radiopaque lesions. The radiological borders were defined but none corticated in 57% of the cases and diffuse in 43%. The lesion was unilocular in 61% and not loculated in 35%. CONCLUSIONS: The variable radiological features of PIOC and its deceptive resemblance to odontogenic cysts and other tumours of the jaws suggests that despite its rarity, PIOC should be considered in the differential diagnosis of radiolucent lesions in the jaws.

Adolescent↗