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The Slovak-American "swaddling ethos": homeostat for family dynamics and cultural continuity.

This paper explores the systemic relationships among cultural ethos, family dynamics, personality configuration, and child-rearing patterns among multigeneration Slovak-Americans. The "swaddling ethos" is posited to serve as a homeostat whose regulatory function can be discerned through the analysis of family structure and process, in particular through the explication of values, affective patterns, roles, boundaries, and structural units within the family. The core of the ethos is a dependency-security complex that attaches the individual to an extended family network of obligation, indebtedness, and reciprocity (ethnic, Slovak); induces rebellion against such attachment (mainstream American); and undermines efforts toward separation-individuation, resulting in the perpetuation of an ethnic tradition.

Attitude

A Computational Workflow for Prioritizing Microbial Metabolite-Associated Host Genes in Constipation-Predominant Irritable Bowel Syndrome.

No standardized computational pipeline exists for systematically prioritizing microbial metabolite-associated host genes and protein-ligand complexes from publicly available chemical, genomic, and structural databases. This article describes an eight-stage workflow that accepts a user-defined set of gut microbiota-derived metabolites and produces a ranked shortlist of candidate metabolite-associated host genes, enriched biological pathways, and structurally prioritized protein-ligand complexes for experimental follow-up. The pipeline integrates (i) chemoinformatic metabolite profiling; (ii) multi-database candidate target prediction using protein-chemical interaction and ligand-based target-prediction tool and a molecular docking program; (iii) differential gene expression analysis of publicly available transcriptomic data; (iv) target-differentially expressed gene overlap; (v) protein-protein interaction network construction and pathway enrichment; (vi) molecular docking with a molecular docking program; (vii) 200 ns molecular dynamics simulation using a molecular dynamics engine with a protein force field used for molecular dynamics simulations; and (viii) MM-PBSA binding free-energy estimation. As a worked example, nine gut microbiota-derived or microbiota-modified metabolites representing short-chain fatty acids, bile acids, tryptophan-derived metabolites, and urolithin A were processed using the public IBS-C rectal mucosal transcriptomic dataset GSE36701. The workflow ranked 17 unique predicted metabolite-associated genes that were differentially expressed in this dataset. Docking, molecular dynamics simulation, and MM-PBSA analyses structurally prioritized five metabolite-protein complexes: lithocholic acid-VDR, lithocholic acid-NR1H4/FXR, ursodeoxycholic acid-NR1H4/FXR, tryptamine-HTR2A (simulated in an explicit 1-Palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POPC) lipid bilayer), and urolithin A-CASP3. The protocol is designed to be adaptable to other metabolite sets, disease transcriptomic datasets, and target classes; all outputs are hypothesis-generating computational predictions that require independent transcriptomic replication, protein-level validation, and functional ligand-response assays before causal or therapeutic conclusions can be drawn.

Irritable Bowel Syndrome

Comprehensive Analysis of Differentially Expressed Genes and Immune Infiltration in Burn Injury: Key Biomarkers and Pathways.

BACKGROUND: Burn injuries trigger complex immune responses and gene expression changes, impacting wound healing and systemic inflammation. Understanding these changes is crucial for identifying biomarkers and therapeutic targets. METHODS: We analyzed two gene expression omnibus datasets (wound tissue [GSE8056] and blood [GSE37069]) to identify differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in burn injury samples versus controls. Immune cell proportions were assessed using CIBERSORT. Functional enrichment analyses (Gene Ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes) and protein-protein interaction networks were constructed to identify key genes and pathways. RESULTS: We identified 1170 upregulated and 1227 downregulated DEGs. Gene Ontology analysis revealed enrichment in neutrophil activation, inflammatory response, and extracellular matrix organization. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes analysis highlighted cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction, TNF, and IL-17 signaling pathways. Immune infiltration analysis showed significant changes in neutrophils, macrophages (M1/M2), and T-cell subsets. Protein-protein interaction network analysis identified five hub genes: JUN, STAT1, Bcl2, MMP9, and TLR2. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides a comprehensive bioinformatic analysis of gene expression and immune responses in burn injuries. The identified DEGs, hub genes, and pathways offer insights into the immune response mechanisms and suggest potential targets for diagnostic and therapeutic interventions in burn injury management.

Burns

Subregional topography of capillaries in the dorsal vagal complex of rats: I. Morphometric properties.

Cytoarchitectonic and neurochemical studies of the dorsal vagal complex in the caudal medulla oblongata of rats indicate the existence of distinct anatomical and functional compartments within its components. We applied morphometric methods to discern whether capillary networks differed quantitatively between subregions and zones of area postrema, nucleus tractus solitarii (NTS), and dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus nerve (DMN) of rats. Analysis of 11 subdivisions of area postrema identified both "true" (range in luminal diameter of 3-7.5 microns) and sinusoidal (luminal diameter greater than 7.5 microns) capillaries that, together, made the capillary density for most of area postrema 75% greater than that found in NTS and DMN (526/mm2 vs about 300/mm2). The rank order of true capillary density in area postrema along its rostracaudal axis was caudal greater than central greater than rostral, whereas the reverse order was true for sinusoidal capillaries. Dorsal (periventricular) and medial zones of area postrema throughout its rostrocaudal axis tended to have higher values for capillary density, volume, surface area, luminal diameter, and pericapillary space volume than lateral or ventral zones bordering NTS. Within 200 microns of obex, the ventral zone of rostral area postrema was distinct, having a relatively sparse capillary density that may indicate morphological specializations limiting blood-tissue communication in this subregion. There were no quantitative differences in capillary dimensions between DMN and three subnuclei of NTS. These studies add to extant evidence that the dorsal vagal complex is differentiated for specific functions. Area postrema, especially, has topographical diversity in its capillary organization that likely corresponds to complex roles in neuroendocrine, autonomic, and chemosensory mechanisms.

Animals

Dynamic single unit simulation of a realistic cerebellar network model. II. Purkinje cell activity within the basic circuit and modified by inhibitory systems.

In continuation of earlier computer simulation studies 15 of the feedback inhibition exercised by the Golgi cells of the cerebellum, an attempt is made at modeling the behavior of Purkinje and basket cells under somewhat more complex functional circumstances. The simulation study is based on a realistic network model (with respect to numerical and metrical parameters, and consisting of more than 3 X 10(4) units) of the cat cerebellar cortex, derived from a recent quantitative histological and stereological analysis 9-12. As an input two identical pairs of foci of incoming mossy fiber activity are applied, separated from one another both spatially and temporally. The stimulation results showed that the assumption of a rigidly preaddressed wiring in the parallel fiber--Purkinje cell synaptic system (i.e. that parallel fibers would systematically select for contact Purkinje cells standing in register) would hardly be realistic because such a solution would offer no advantage whatever over a randomly connected synaptic system. The results would favor the contention that dendritic geometry of the Purkinje cells has a crucial significance in the sense of the concepts developed by W. Rall. The stimulation gives some important hints for the ways in which the specific inhibitory interneuron systems (Golgi and basket cells) add refinement to the operations of the network, particularly in securing integration of the influences of parallel fibers thrown into action by mossy input to spatially and temporally separated foci, especially at the level of Purkinje cells positioned in interfocal areas. Reducing the length of the parallel fibers to one-half of what was suggested by the stereological studies causes a serious breakdown of interfocal neighborhood interactions.

Action Potentials

Elucidating the Mechanism of Xiaoqinglong Decoction in Chronic Urticaria Treatment: An Integrated Approach of Network Pharmacology, Bioinformatics Analysis, Molecular Docking, and Molecular Dynamics Simulations.

INTRODUCTION: Xiaoqinglong Decoction (XQLD) is a traditional Chinese medicinal formula commonly used to treat chronic urticaria (CU). However, its underlying therapeutic mechanisms remain incompletely characterized. This study employed an integrated approach combining network pharmacology, bioinformatics, molecular docking, and molecular dynamics simulations to identify the active components, potential targets, and related signaling pathways involved in XQLD's therapeutic action against CU, thereby providing a mechanistic foundation for its clinical application. METHODS: The active components of XQLD and their corresponding targets were identified using the Traditional Chinese Medicine Systems Pharmacology (TCMSP) database. CU-related targets were retrieved from the OMIM and GeneCards databases. Subsequently, core components and targets were determined via protein-protein interaction (PPI) network analysis and component-target-pathway network construction. Topological analyses were performed using Cytoscape software to prioritize core nodes within these networks. Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analyses were conducted via the DAVID database to identify enriched biological processes and signaling pathways. Molecular docking was performed to evaluate binding interactions between key components and core targets, while molecular dynamics (MD) simulations were employed to assess the stability of the component-target complexes with the lowest binding energy. Finally, CU-related targets of XQLD were validated using datasets from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database. RESULTS: A total of 135 active components and 249 potential targets of XQLD were identified, alongside 1,711 CU-related targets. Core components, such as quercetin, kaempferol, beta-sitosterol, naringenin, stigmasterol, and luteolin, exhibited high degree values in the constructed networks. The core targets identified included AKT1, TNF, IL6, TP53, PTGS2, CASP3, BCL2, ESR1, PPARG, and MAPK3. GO and KEGG pathway enrichment analyses revealed the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway as a central regulatory mechanism. Molecular docking studies demonstrated strong binding affinities between active components and core targets, with the stigmasterol-AKT1 complex exhibiting the lowest binding energy (-11.4 kcal/mol) and high stability in MD simulations. Validation using GEO datasets identified 12 core genes shared between CU-related targets and XQLD-associated targets, including PTGS2 and IL6, which were also prioritized as core targets in the network pharmacology analyses. DISCUSSION: This study comprehensively integrates multidisciplinary approaches to clarify the potential molecular mechanisms of XQLD in treating CU, highlighting its multitarget and multipathway synergistic effects. Molecular docking and dynamics simulations confirm the stable interaction between stigmasterol and the core target AKT1. Additionally, GEO dataset analysis verifies the pathogenic relevance of targets such as PTGS2 and IL6, significantly enhancing the credibility of our findings. These results provide a modern scientific basis for the traditional therapeutic effects of XQLD on CU and have important implications for developing multitarget treatments for this condition. However, this study mainly relies on database mining and computational simulations. Further in vitro and in vivo experimental validations are needed to confirm the predicted component-target-pathway interactions. CONCLUSION: This study identifies the active components, potential targets, and pathways through which XQLD exerts therapeutic effects on CU. These findings provide a theoretical foundation for further mechanistic studies and support their clinical application in the treatment of CU.

Molecular Docking Simulation

Moderate expression and activity of flocculins underlie the characteristic flocculation phenotype of Saccharomyces pastorianus.

Flocculation is a key technological trait in lager brewing, governing fermentation performance, yeast recovery, and beer quality. In the allo-aneuploid hybrid yeast Saccharomyces pastorianus, the genetic basis of flocculation remains poorly resolved due to its complex dual sub-genome architecture. Here, we systematically re-annotated and functionally characterized the complete FLO gene repertoire of the Group II strain CBS 1483. Thirteen FLO genes were identified, including allelic variants and a previously uncharacterized adhesin, Flo12, containing a Hyphal_reg_CWP domain instead of the canonical PA14 lectin-binding domain. Structural modeling revealed strong conservation of Ca²+-binding residues in PA14 domains, alongside repeat-region diversification likely contributing to functional variability. Using optogenetic expression in a FLO-null background, we demonstrated that SpcI-FLO9-1 and SpcI-FLO9-2_1 are the strongest drivers of flocculation, exhibiting NewFlo-like sugar sensitivity. Transcriptomic analysis during 17°P wort fermentation showed dynamic induction of these genes coinciding with flocculation onset. Surprisingly, deletion of both loci in CBS 1483 did not abolish but only delayed sedimentation in wort, accompanied by improved maltose utilization and attenuation. These findings reveal functional redundancy and compensatory mechanisms within the FLO network of lager yeast, highlighting the genetic complexity underlying flocculation, and providing a molecular framework to inform yeast selection, strain development, and optimization of the lager fermentation processes.IMPORTANCEFlocculation, the process by which yeast cells aggregate and settle, is essential for producing clear, high-quality lager beer, and for efficient yeast recovery during brewing. However, the genetic basis of this trait in lager yeast has remained poorly understood because these strains possess unusually complex hybrid genomes. In this study, we systematically identified and characterized the complete set of flocculation genes in the industrial lager yeast Saccharomyces pastorianus CBS 1483. We demonstrated that lager yeast flocculation is not controlled by a single dominant gene, but instead emerges from the combined action of several moderately active adhesion proteins that are expressed at low levels during fermentation. Surprisingly, deleting the two strongest candidate genes only delayed, rather than eliminated, sedimentation, revealing a robust compensatory network that preserves brewing performance. These findings refine the current understanding of yeast flocculation and provide a molecular framework for developing brewing strains with improved fermentation efficiency, product consistency, and flavor quality.

Saccharomyces pastorianus

Reducing complexity in metabolic networks: making metabolic meshes manageable.

The dynamics of complex systems can be effectively analyzed by judicious use of intrinsic time constants. Order of magnitude estimation based on time constants has been used successfully to examine the dynamic behavior of complicated processes. The main goal of this paper is to introduce this approach to the analysis of complex metabolic systems. Time constants and dynamic modes of motion are defined within the context of well-established linear algebra. The order of magnitude estimation is then introduced into the systemic framework. The main goals of the analysis are: to provide improved understanding of biochemical dynamics and their physiological significance, and to yield reduced dynamic models that are physiologically realistic but tractable for practical use.

Animals

Learning the hidden structure of speech.

In the work described here, the backpropagation neural network learning procedure is applied to the analysis and recognition of speech. This procedure takes a set of input/output pattern pairs and attempts to learn their functional relationship; it develops the necessary representational features during the course of learning. A series of computer simulation studies was carried out to assess the ability of these networks to accurately label sounds, to learn to recognize sounds without labels, and to learn feature representations of continuous speech. These studies demonstrated that the networks can learn to label presegmented test tokens with accuracies of up to 95%. Networks trained on segmented sounds using a strategy that requires no external labels were able to recognize and delineate sounds in continuous speech. These networks developed rich internal representations that included units which corresponded to such traditional distinctions as vowels and consonants, as well as units that were sensitive to novel and nonstandard features. Networks trained on a large corpus of unsegmented, continuous speech without labels also developed interesting feature representations, which may be useful in both segmentation and label learning. The results of these studies, while preliminary, demonstrate that backpropagation learning can be used with complex, natural data to identify a feature structure that can serve as the basis for both analysis and nontrivial pattern recognition.

Computer Simulation

Cytoarchitectural analysis of epithelial sheets formed in vitro by hepatic tumor cells possessing defined intermediate-sized filament cytoskeletal abnormalities.

Established 72/22 rat hepatic tumor cells, which bear well-characterized cytoplasmic abnormalities of intermediate filament (IF) network organization, form monolayer "sheets" of tightly juxtaposed epithelial cells at high culture population densities. The distribution of desmosomal complexes and their affiliated tonofilaments, as well as the regulation of cytokeratin/vimentin IF and actin microfilament contents were assessed during construction of this in vitro "epithelium." 72/22 cells formed desmosomal junctions throughout the length of the cellular perimeter. Compared with low population density cultures, fully confluent sheets of 72/22 cells exhibited a down-regulated cytoskeletal actin content and increased level of cytokeratin synthesis. Despite gross IF cytoarchitectural abnormalities, 72/22 cells normally modulated the content of specific structural elements within both the IF and microfilament networks in response to increasing cell-cell contact. Furthermore, these data support the concept that neither the structural integrity nor the topographic distribution of the desmosome array are dependent on tonofilament anchorage or IF scaffold organization.

Cell Division

A computer based model for realistic simulations of neural networks. I. The single neuron and synaptic interaction.

The use of computer simulations as a neurophysiological tool creates new possibilities to understand complex systems and to test whether a given model can explain experimental findings. Simulations, however, require a detailed specification of the model, including the nerve cell action potential and synaptic transmission. We describe a neuron model of intermediate complexity, with a small number of compartments representing the soma and the dendritic tree, and equipped with Na+, K+, Ca2+, and Ca2+ dependent K+ channels. Conductance changes in the different compartments are used to model conventional excitatory and inhibitory synaptic interactions. Voltage dependent NMDA-receptor channels are also included, and influence both the electrical conductance and the inflow of Ca2+ ions. This neuron model has been designed for the analysis of neural networks and specifically for the simulation of the network generating locomotion in a simple vertebrate, the lamprey. By assigning experimentally established properties to the simulated cells and their synapses, it has been possible to verify the sufficiency of these properties to account for a number of experimental findings of the network in operation. The model is, however, sufficiently general to be useful for realistic simulation also of other neural systems.

Computer Simulation

Structural organization of the sperm chromatin in a fern (Scolopendrium vulgare) studied by spreading methods.

To investigate chromatin organization, we applied the spreading techniques to nuclei isolated from Scolopendrium spermatozoids. Well-dispersed chromatin shows three types of fibers: beaded fibers corresponding to a nucleosomal filament with adjacent nucleosomes in close contact, smooth fibers (14 nm in diameter) associated in a complex network, and knobby fibers constituted by local supercoiling of a very thin (4 nm) smooth filament. Along the knobby fibers, beads of variable size are irregularly spaced. The knobby fibers lie parallel and coalesce in thick bundles. The sperms basic proteins identified by electrophoretic analysis probably promote the supercoiling and the side-to-side attachment of the knobby fibers, which are all the more abundant in spread preparations. These results indicate that knobby fibers are probably located in the outer part of the sperm nucleus in which the chromatin is densely packed. As for the nucleosomal and smooth filaments, they may be situated in the inner part.

Cell Nucleus

Objective analysis of the topological organization of the primate cortical visual system.

The primate cortical visual system is composed of many structurally and functionally distinct areas, each receiving and sending about 10 projections from and to other cortical areas. The visual cortex is thus served by many cortico-cortical connections to form a network of considerable complexity. Thus the gross organization of this cortical processing system presents a formidable topological problem: although the spatial position of the areas in the brain is reasonably well established, the gross 'processing architecture' defined by the connections, is less well understood. Here I report an optimization approach that gives both qualitative and quantitative insight into the connectional topology of the primate cortical visual system. This approach supports suggestions that the system is divided into a dorsal 'stream' and a ventral 'stream' with limited cross-talk, that these two streams reconverge in the region of the principal sulcus (area 46) and in the superior temporal polysensory areas, that the system is hierarchically organized, and that the majority of the connections are from 'nearest-neighbour' and 'next-door-but-one' areas.

Animals

Microtubules and microtubule-associated proteins in resting and mitogenically activated normal human peripheral blood T cells.

The binding of an appropriate ligand to its specific receptor on the membrane of T cells triggers a cascade of events involved in T cell activation. An important yet unanswered question is how the mitogenic signals are transmitted through the cytoplasm and into the nucleus. The present study was carried out to determine changes in the microtubule (MT) system, following T cell activation. Fluorescence microscopy was employed to examine the organization of the microtubule network in human peripheral blood T cells in response to four different mitogens (phytohemagglutinin, concanavalin A, anti-CD3, and phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate). The microtubules increase in length, number, and complexity of distribution 20 h after mitogenic stimulation. Using an in situ direct analysis protocol consisting of selective extraction of cells with detergent and Ca2+, 11 protein species, which fulfill the operational definition of microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs), were identified in resting human T cells. Alterations in the expression of these protein species were studied following mitogenic stimulation. These alterations in MAPs expression were also found in purified blast cell fractions indicating that they were specific changes occurring in activated T cell populations. These observations suggest a role for MT and MAPs in the cascade of human T cell activation.

Cell Cycle

IBAS: Interaction-bridged association studies discovering novel genes underlying complex traits.

Genetic contributions to complex traits are often mediated through coordinated gene-gene interaction networks, yet most existing association frameworks focus on marginal single-gene effects and overlook higher-order dependency structures. Direct modeling of interactions remains challenging due to combinatorial complexity and statistical instability. We introduce Interaction-Bridged Association Study (IBAS), a general framework that incorporates pathway-level interaction patterns into genotype-phenotype association analysis without explicitly enumerating interactions. IBAS leverages transcriptomic reference data to construct low-dimensional representations of pathway activity, which guide SNP-weighting and gene-level association testing within a kernel-based framework. In perturbation-based simulations, IBAS demonstrates improved stability and reproducibility compared to conventional TWAS and gene-based methods, while maintaining well-calibrated Type I error under phenotype permutation. Application to the WTCCC datasets identifies both known and novel genes across multiple complex diseases, including candidates with modest marginal effects missed by standard approaches. These findings are supported by replication in an independent cohort, and analyses across multiple reference tissues revealing both shared and tissue-specific signals. Overall, IBAS provides a statistically robust and computationally tractable framework for incorporating interaction effects into association mapping, extending beyond the single-gene paradigm and enabling more comprehensive characterization of complex trait. IBAS is available on GitHub at: https://github.com/QingrunZhangLab/IBAS.

Polymorphism, Single Nucleotide

Spiramycin fermentation residue-derived biochar regulates soil nutrient cycling, microbial communities, and antibiotic resistance gene dynamics.

Spiramycin fermentation residues (SFR) are hazardous wastes enriched with residual antibiotics, yet they can serve as potential feedstocks for resource recovery after appropriate treatment. In this study, SFR-derived biochar (SFR-BC) was produced by pyrolysis and applied to agricultural soil to evaluate its effects on soil properties, microbial communities, potential pathogenic bacteria, antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs), and mobile genetic elements (MGEs). A 60-day soil incubation experiment was conducted with one control and three SFR-BC application rates of 0.5%, 1.0%, and 2.0%. SFR-BC improved soil physicochemical properties, nutrient status, enzyme activities, and microbial alpha diversity. Metagenomic analysis showed that SFR-BC altered the abundance of functional genes associated with carbon and nitrogen cycling, indicating shifts in microbial functional potential. SFR-BC also changed bacterial co-occurrence patterns, with the high-dose treatment showing a more complex and highly connected network structure during incubation. In addition, high-dose SFR-BC reduced several potential pathogenic bacteria, including major plant pathogenic taxa. SFR-BC decreased soil ARG abundance by 9.38%-33.67% and MGE abundance by 6.49%-27.89% relative to the control, showing a dose-dependent reduction in antibiotic resistance-related genetic elements. Network and PLS-PM analyses further indicated that ARG variation was statistically associated with soil physicochemical properties, microbial diversity, potential bacterial hosts, and MGEs. Overall, these results suggest that SFR-BC can improve short-term soil nutrient status and reduce ARGs, MGEs, and several potential pathogenic taxa under controlled incubation conditions, providing useful evidence for the potential valorization of antibiotic fermentation residues through pyrolysis.

Charcoal

HUMESS: integrating quantitative transcriptomic analysis and metabolic modeling to unveil condition-specific gene signatures.

SUMMARY: Transcriptomic analysis is a key tool for exploring gene expression, but the complexity of biological systems often limits its insights. In particular, the lack of intermodal or multi-layered analysis hinders the ability to fully capture key cellular functions such as metabolism from transcriptomic data alone. Here, we introduce a novel approach that informs transcriptomic data analysis with metabolic network modeling to address this. Unlike traditional methods, HUman MEtabolism Specific Signature (HUMESS) uses genome-scale metabolic modeling and flux analysis to highlight reactions and involved genes based on their metabolic significance, offering a deeper understanding of transcriptomic data. Our computational pipeline, supported by a user-friendly Rshiny application, enhances gene expression analysis by uncovering metabolic phenotypic signatures. AVAILABILITY AND IMPLEMENTATION: HUMESS is open source and available under GitLab https://gitlab.univ-nantes.fr/bird_pipeline_registry/humess with the complete documentation available at https://gitlab.univ-nantes.fr/bird_pipeline_registry/humess/-/wikis/Home. A zenodo archive is also available at the following DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15487717. An RShiny application has been developed to facilitate the exploration and analysis of HUMESS's results. The app is available online at the following address: https://shiny-bird.univ-nantes.fr/app/shinymess but can also be installed locally, available under GitLab https://gitlab.univ-nantes.fr/pare-l/shinymess.

Humans

Schizophrenia and social networks: ex-patients in the inner city.

A high level of social contacts has been recognized as one of the main predictors of outcome in schizophrenia. However, a variety of issues concerning the sociability of schizophrenics still need to be clarified. Focusing on ex-mental patients residing in a large Manhattan hotel, an analysis is made of the relationship between several social network variables, psychopathology, and rehospitalization. The findings indicate that: (1) Schizophrenics have significantly fewer linkages than nonpsychotics, but even the most impaired schizophrenics are not totally isolated. (2) Within the schizophrenic spectrum there are differences with respect to network size, complexity, directionality, and interconnectedness. (3) Rehospitalization is dependent upon two factors, degree of psychopathology and hotel network size.

Adult