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PubMed1996

The neurobiology of sign language and its implications for the neural basis of language.

The left cerebral hemisphere is dominant for language, and many aspects of language use are more impaired by damage to the left than the right hemisphere. The basis for this asymmetry, however, is a matter of debate; the left hemisphere may be specialized for processing linguistic information or for some more general function on which language depends, such as the processing of rapidly changing temporal information or execution of complex motor patterns. To investigate these possibilities, we examined the linguistic abilities of 23 sign-language users with unilateral brain lesions. Despite the fact that sign language relies on visuospatial rather than rapid temporal information, the same left-hemispheric dominance emerged. Correlation analyses of the production of sign language versus non-linguistic hand gestures suggest that these processes are largely independent. Our findings support the view that the left-hemisphere dominance for language is not reducible solely to more general sensory or motor processes.

Adult↗

PubMed1981

Processing of formational, semantic, and iconic information in American sign language.

Three experiments examined short-term encoding processes of deaf signers for different aspects of signs from American Sign Language. Experiment 1 compared short-term memory for lists of formationally similar signs with memory for matched lists of random signs. Just as acoustic similarity of words interferes with short-term memory or word sequences, formational similarity of signs had a marked debilitating effect on the ordered recall of sequences of signs. Experiment 2 evaluated the effects of the semantic similarity of the signs on short-term memory: Semantic similarity had no significant effect on short-term ordered recall of sequences of signs. Experiment 3 studied the role that the iconic (representational) value of signs played in short-term memory. Iconicity also had no reliable effect on short-term recall. These results provide support for the position that deaf signers code signs from American Sign Language at one level in terms of linguistically significant formational parameters. The semantic and iconic information of signs, however, seems to have little effect on short-term memory.

Deafness↗

PubMed1998

Teaching sign language to hearing children as a possible factor in cognitive enhancement.

We describe an educational experience designed to teach Italian Sign Language (LIS) to a group of hearing children. The hypothesis underlying this experience was that learning a visual-gestural language such as LIS may improve children's attentional abilities, visual discrimination, and spatial memory. To examine this hypothesis, we conducted two studies. The first involved an educational experience lasting two years with a group of hearing children attending a Sign Language class from first to second grade. The Raven PM 47 TEST was administered at the beginning and at the end of each school year to children attending the LIS classes and to a control group of children enrolled in the same school but not exposed to LIS. The second study involved an educational experience in first grade. The Raven PM 47 and Corsi's block tapping tests were administered at the beginning and at the end of the school year to the children attending the LIS classes, to children enrolled in the same school but at tending an English class, and to children not exposed to a second language. We found that in both studies the LIS group performed better than the other groups. These results suggest that learning a sign language may lead to a cognitive advancement in hearing children.

Journal Article↗

PubMed2003

The effect of irrelevant visual input on working memory for sign language.

We report results showing that working memory for American Sign Language (ASL) is sensitive to irrelevant signed input (and other structured visual input) in a manner similar to the effects of irrelevant auditory input on working memory for speech. Deaf signers were disrupted on serial recall of lists of ASL signs when either pseudosigns or moving shapes were presented during a retention interval. Hearing subjects asked to recall lists of printed English words did not show disruption under the same interference conditions. The results favor models that hypothesize modality-specific representations of language within working memory, as opposed to amodal representations. The results further indicate that working memory for sign language involves visual or quasi-visual representations, suggesting parallels to visuospatial working memory.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1997

Working memory for sign language: a window into the architecture of the working memory system.

Traditionally, working memory has been divided into two major domains: verbal and visuo-spatial. The verbal domain of working memory can be characterized either by its relationship to language or by its grounding in auditory processing. Because of this ambiguity, languages that are not auditory and vocal (i.e., signed languages) pose a challenge to this conception of working memory. We describe several experiments with deaf users of American Sign Language (ASL) that explore the extent to which the architecture of working memory is determined by the constraints of auditory and visual processing and the extent to which it is determined by the characteristics of language. Various working memory effects were investigated: phonological similarity, word length, and articulatory suppression. The pattern of evidence strongly supports the existence of a sign-based 'rehearsal loop' mechanism parallel to the speech-based rehearsal loop. However, we also discuss evidence pointing to differences between the speech loop and the sign loop from forward and backward digit span tasks with deaf and hearing subjects. Despite their similarities based on linguistic properties, the speech loop and the sign loop appear to diverge due to the differing processing demands of audition and vision. Overall, the results suggest that the architecture of working memory is shaped both by the properties of language structure and by the constraints imposed by sensorimotor modality.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1977

Acquisition of modified American sign language by a mute autistic child.

An attempt was made to teach a modified version of American Sign Language to mute 5-year-old boy who had been diagnosed autistic and who had a Merrill-Palmer IQ of 65. Previous attempts to teach imitative spoken language had failed, and baseline data indicated that the child's signing vocabulary was also nonexistent. Data were collected during 20 structured sessions involving presentation of stimuli, prompting and manual guidance when necessary, and reinforcement. Continuous use of signs as communication in class and at home was emphasized. The child had mastered 12 signs at the end of the study. Spontaneous signing frequency as recorded by parents and teachers during several 48 hour periods rose from 15 to 42 emitted signs over the 3 months of the study. The child made 6 months' developmental progress during this time, as measured by a sign-language adaptation of the Alpern-Boll Communication Scale. However, the child made no apparent progress in acquiring spoken language.

Autistic Disorder↗

PubMed2005

Perception of sign language and its application to visual communications for deaf people.

Video communication systems for deaf people are limited in terms of quality and performance. Analysis of visual attention mechanisms for sign language may enable optimization of video coding systems for deaf users. Eye-movement tracking experiments were conducted with profoundly deaf volunteers while watching sign language video clips. Deaf people are found to fixate mostly on the facial region of the signer to pick up small detailed movements associated with facial expression and mouth shapes. Lower resolution, peripheral vision is used to process information from larger, rapid movements of the signer in the video clips. A coding scheme that gives priority to the face of the signer may be applied to improve perception of video quality for sign language communication.

Adult↗

PubMed1980

Peer-facilitated sign language training for a geriatric stroke victim with chronic brain damage.

The possibility of sign language training for a psycho-geriatric, aphasic, brain damaged patient was investigated over a 66-week period. Training progressed from finger dexterity tasks, physical manipulation of the patient's hand, and visual prompting to requests for a particular sign without supplementary cues. Midway through the program a peer was included in an effort to generalize the use of sign to others on the ward. The patient learned 14 signs. Data on sign language usage and social behaviors taken during three measurement periods indicate that, when the peer was present during training, performance was highest and there was an increase in the patient's level of socialization as measured by eye contact, gestures, and attempted speech. Retention of the signs and increased social responsivity were still observed two and four months after the termination of the program.

Aged↗

PubMed2004

The puzzle of working memory for sign language.

Why is immediate-serial-recall (short-term memory) span consistently shorter for sign language than it is for speech? A new study by Boutla et al. shows that neither the length of signs, nor the formational similarity of signed digits, can account for the difference. Their results suggest instead that the answer lies in differences between the auditory and visual systems. At the same time, however, their results show that sign language and spoken language yield equivalent processing spans, suggesting that reliance on immediate-serial-recall measures in clinical and educational testing is misplaced.

Auditory Perception↗

PubMed2004

The effects of delayed physical prompts and reinforcement on infant sign language acquisition.

Researchers and clinicians have recommended that sign language be taught to typically developing children during their first 2 years of life; however, existing research does not provide adequate information regarding appropriate methods of sign training. We used delayed physical prompting and reinforcement to teach manual signs to 3 children between the ages of 6 and 13 months. Data were collected on the occurrence of prompted and independent signs as well as crying. Sign training was successful in producing independent signing in all 3 children in under 4 hr of training per child.

Communication↗

PubMed1998

Issues in designing an assessment of British Sign Language development.

This paper reports on a collaborative project in progress to develop a standardised clinical assessment of British Sign Language development for use with deaf children. The need for such an assessment is highlighted following a survey of professionals working in this area (Herman, in press). The development of the assessment battery will be described in the context of research into the assessment of sign language development. Issues in selection of the standardisation population will be presented. Finally the need for collaboration between different professionals working in this area, in particular the key role of the deaf BSL user will be emphasised.

Child↗

PubMed2006

Nicaraguan Sign Language and Theory of Mind: the issue of critical periods and abilities.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies in the literature report that deaf individuals who experience late access to language perform poorly on false belief tests of Theory of Mind (ToM) compared with age-matched deaf and hearing controls exposed to language early. METHODS: A group of 22 deaf Nicaraguans (aged 7 to 39 years) who learned Nicaraguan Sign Language (ISN) at different ages were tested on a false belief and a nonverbal cartoon retell task designed to elicit talk about the contents of character's mental states. RESULTS: Access to sign language by 10 years of age with possible advantages in language fluency was a strong predictor of performance on both the false belief task and mental state narrative task. However, a comparison of performance on the two tests indicated that children and adults who learned sign after the age of 10 were still able to demonstrate a more general ability to use mental state expressions in narratives. Results are discussed in terms of late access to language and critical periods for the parallel development of Theory of Mind and language. CONCLUSIONS: The findings point to age 10 years as a crucial period when lack of language exposure can lead to long-lasting deficits in false belief abilities. Late exposure to sign language does not, however, rule out all aspects of the ability to consider others' mental states. This paper also highlights the need to take into consideration a variety of communication responses when evaluating deaf children's ToM reasoning.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1997

Neural correlates of thinking in sign language.

Positron emission tomography (PET) was used to identify the brain regions activated during the 'inner signing' of sentences in subjects who were profoundly deaf and normally communicated using sign language. Although this appeared to involve the internal representation of hand and arm movements in space, it activated the left inferior frontal cortex rather than visuo-spatial areas. The activated region corresponds to that engaged during the silent articulation of sentences in hearing subjects. This suggests that 'inner signing' is mediated by similar regions to inner speech, and is consistent with neuropsychological data implicating the left hemisphere in the generation of sign language.

Adult↗

PubMed1999

The development and psychometric properties of the American sign language proficiency assessment (ASL-PA).

We describe the procedures for constructing an instrument designed to evaluate children's proficiency in American Sign Language (ASL). The American Sign Language Proficiency Assessment (ASL-PA) is a much-needed tool that potentially could be used by researchers, language specialists, and qualified school personnel. A half-hour ASL sample is collected on video from a target child (between ages 6 and 12) across three separate discourse settings and is later analyzed and scored by an assessor who is highly proficient in ASL. After the child's language sample is scored, he or she can be assigned an ASL proficiency rating of Level 1, 2, or 3. At this phase in its development, substantial evidence of reliability and validity has been obtained for the ASL-PA using a sample of 80 profoundly deaf children (ages 6-12) of varying ASL skill levels. The article first explains the item development and administration of the ASL-PA instrument, then describes the empirical item analysis, standard setting procedures, and evidence of reliability and validity. The ASL-PA is a promising instrument for assessing elementary school-age children's ASL proficiency. Plans for further development are also discussed.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1982

Increasing probability of sign language learning by severely mentally retarded individuals: a discussion of learner, sign production, and linguistic variables.

A pervasive problem for educators of the severely mentally retarded is language training. In spite of extensive oral language training, many severely mentally retarded individuals never acquire functional oral language. Many of these clients, however, are able to acquire sign language communication skills. The present article discusses sign language learning in terms of learner attributes, production variables in sign, and the referential concepts which the signs represent. More specifically, it is hypothesized that by taking into account variables such as sign translucency, referential concreteness, learning readiness, and by externally organizing the signs to be learned along visual continuums, the probability of sign learning by severely mentally retarded individuals can be increased.

Communication Devices for People with Disabilities↗

PubMed1992

Acquisition of signs from American sign language in hearing individuals following left hemisphere damage and aphasia.

Three severely aphasic hearing patients with no prior knowledge of sign language were able to acquire competency in aspects of American Sign Language (ASL) lexicon and finger spelling, in contrast to a near complete inability to speak the English counterparts of these visuo-gestural signs. Two patients with damage in left postero-lateral temporal and inferior parietal cortices mastered production and comprehension of single signs and short meaningful sign sequences, but the one patient with damage to virtually all left temporal cortices was less accurate in single sign processing and was unable to produce sequences of signs at all. These findings suggest that conceptual knowledge is represented independently of the auditory-vocal records for the corresponding lexical entries, and that left anterior temporal cortices outside of traditional "language areas" are part of the neural network which supports the linkage between conceptual knowledge and linguistic signs, especially as they are used in the sequenced activations required for production or comprehension of meaningful sentences.

Adult↗

PubMed2000

The use of sign language interpreting services by medical staff in Dundee.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate awareness and use of the Sign Language Interpreting (SLI) service among doctors in Dundee and to look at reasons for use and non-use of this service. DESIGN: A Questionnaire study. SETTING: Dundee. SUBJECTS: All General Practitioners and Hospital Consultants working in Dundee. RESULTS: Sixty seven percent of General Practitioners and 55% of Consultants returned completed questionnaires. Only 38% and 60% respectively of these two groups were aware of the Sign Language Interpreting Service. Most doctors felt that using the SLI would reduce consultation time but only 18% and 24% have arranged this. CONCLUSION: Previous reports into SLI services have looked at client need, service provision and use. This study has highlighted the lack of awareness that still exists with regard to the needs of the Deaf community during medical consultations. This has to be addressed not least in light of the disability discrimination act 1995.

Communication Barriers↗

PubMed2006

Sign language Web pages.

The WORLD WIDE WEB has changed the way people interact. It has also become an important equalizer of information access for many social sectors. However, for many people, including some sign language users, Web accessing can be difficult. For some, it not only presents another barrier to overcome but has left them without cultural equality. The present article describes a system that allows sign language-only Web pages to be created and linked through a video-based technique called sign-linking. In two studies, 14 Deaf participants examined two iterations of signlinked Web pages to gauge the usability and learnability of a signing Web page interface. The first study indicated that signing Web pages were usable by sign language users but that some interface features required improvement. The second study showed increased usability for those features; users consequently couldnavigate sign language information with ease and pleasure.

Adolescent↗