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PubMed2002

Ligament creep recruits fibres at low stresses and can lead to modulus-reducing fibre damage at higher creep stresses: a study in rabbit medial collateral ligament model.

Ligaments are subjected to a range of loads during different activities in vivo, suggesting that they must resist creep at various stresses. Cyclic and static creep tests of rabbit medial collateral ligament were used as a model to examine creep over a range of stresses in the toe- and linear-regions of the stress-strain curve: 4.1 MPa (n = 7), 7.1 MPa (n = 6), 14 MPa (n = 9) and 28 MPa (n = 6). We quantified ligament creep behaviour to determine if, at low stresses, modulus would increase in a cyclic creep test and collagen fibres would be recruited in a static creep test. At higher creep stresses, a decrease in measured modulus was expected to be a potential marker of damage. The increase in modulus during cyclic creep and the increase in strain during static creep were similar between the three toe-region stresses (4.1, 7.1, 14 MPa). However, at the linear-region stress (28 MPa), both these parameters increased significantly compared to the increases at the three toe-region stresses. A concurrent crimp analysis revealed that collagen fibres were recruited during creep, evidenced by decreased area of crimped fibres at the end of the static creep test. Interestingly, a predominance of straightened fibres was observed at the end of the 28 MPa creep test, suggesting a limited potential for fibre recruitment at higher, linear-region stresses. An additional 28 MPa (n = 6) group had mechanically detectable discontinuities in their stress-strain curves during creep that were related to reductions in modulus and suggested fibre damage. These data support the concept that collagen fibre recruitment is a mechanism by which ligaments resist creep at low stresses. At a higher creep stress, which was still only about a third of the failure capacity, damage to some ligaments occurred and was marked by a sudden reduction in modulus. In the cyclic tests, with continued cycling, the modulus increased back to original values obtained before the discontinuity suggesting that other fibres were being recruited to bear load. These results have important implications for our understanding of how fibre recruitment and stress redistribution act in normal ligament to minimize creep and restore modulus after fibre damage.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

How does stress affect you? An overview of stress, immunity, depression and disease.

OBJECTIVE: Stress is a term that has become synonymous with modern life. This review aims to appraise the evidence linking stress with disease with particular reference to the major causes of morbidity and mortality in the Western World, cardiovascular disease, cancer, and depression. Changes in immune parameters in stressful situations were reviewed as a possible pathophysiological mechanism for such effects. METHOD: A Medline search was carried out for the period 1996-2000 to identify recent findings in this field using the terms "stress", "disease", "immune system". Relevant references that were found in all identified publications were also followed up. RESULTS: There is evidence to link stress with the onset of major depression and with a poorer prognosis in cardiovascular disease and cancer. Few small studies suggest that stress management strategies may help to improve survival. Chronic stress appears to result in suppression of the immune response, whereas immune activation and suppression have been associated with acute stress. Inflammatory cytokines, soluble mediators of the immune response, can result in symptoms of depression. CONCLUSION: Further prospective epidemiologically based studies are needed to clarify the role of stress on disease onset, course, and prognosis. Stress management strategies, aimed at prolonging survival in patients with cardiovascular disease, cancer, and possibly other chronic illnesses, are an exciting area of further research. Immune system changes may account for the relationship between stress and disease. We propose the "stress, cytokine, depression" model as a biological pathway to explain the link between stressful life events and depression.

Coronary Disease↗
PubMed2004

Exposure to juvenile stress exacerbates the behavioural consequences of exposure to stress in the adult rat.

To examine the effects of exposure to post-weaning pre-puberty (juvenile) stress on the emotional and cognitive abilities in response to exposure to stress in adulthood, we first exposed rats to a platform stress at the age of 28 d. Two months later the rats were exposed to acute swim stress. Rats exposed to both stressors showed a higher level of anxiety (as measured both in open-field and startle response tests) than controls or rats exposed to either the juvenile or the adulthood stressor. In the Morris water-maze, rats that were exposed to both juvenile and adulthood stress performed better than the other groups. In a second experiment we verified that the effect of the juvenile stress was indeed age-dependent. One group was exposed at the age of 26-28 d and again at the age of 60 d (juvenile + adulthood stress); the other group was exposed to the first stressor at the age of 60-62 d and to the second at the age of 90 d [adulthood (60) + adulthood (90) stress]. Juvenile + adulthood stress had a significantly greater effect than exposure to stress twice in adulthood, on anxiety level and on the performance in the water-maze. Finally, in a third experiment we found that the juvenile+adulthood stress group swam faster and tended to explore the central area more than the other groups--a finding that could explain their better performance on the first trial of the spatial task. These results indicate that an exposure to a relatively brief juvenile stressful experience has profound and long-lasting effects on the ability to cope with stress in adulthood.

Aging↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Anticipatory cognitive stress appraisal and the acute procoagulant stress response in men.

OBJECTIVE: Acute mental stress elicits blood hypercoagulability. Following a transactional stress model, we investigated whether individuals who anticipate stress as more threatening, challenging, and as exceeding their coping skills show greater stress reactivity of the coagulation activation marker D-dimer, indicating fibrin generation in plasma. METHODS: Forty-seven men (mean age 44 +/- 14 years; mean blood pressure [MBP] 101 +/- 12 mm Hg; mean body mass index [BMI] 26 +/- 3 kg/m(2)) completed the Primary Appraisal Secondary Appraisal (PASA) scale before undergoing the Trier Social Stress Test (combination of mock job interview and mental arithmetic task). Heart rate, blood pressure, plasma catecholamines, and D-dimer levels were measured before and after stress, and during recovery up to 60 minutes poststress. RESULTS: Hemodynamic measures, catecholamines, and D-dimer changed across all time points (p values <.001). The PASA "Stress Index" (integrated measure of transactional stress perception) correlated with total D-dimer area under the curve (AUC) between rest and 60 minutes poststress (r = 0.30, p = .050) and with D-dimer change from rest to immediately poststress (r = 0.29, p = .046). Primary appraisal (combined "threat" and "challenge") correlated with total D-dimer AUC (r = 0.37, p = .017), D-dimer stress change (r = 0.41, p = .004), and D-dimer recovery (r = 0.32, p = .042). "Challenge" correlated more strongly with D-dimer stress change than "threat" (p = .020). Primary appraisal (DeltaR(2) = 0.098, beta = 0.37, p = .019), and particularly its subscale "challenge" (DeltaR(2) = 0.138, beta = 0.40, p = .005), predicted D-dimer stress change independently of age, BP, BMI, and catecholamine change. CONCLUSIONS: Anticipatory cognitive appraisal determined the extent of coagulation activation to and recovery from stress in men. Particularly individuals who anticipated the stressor as more challenging and also more threatening had a greater fibrin stress response.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed2005

Modulation of motor function by stress: a novel concept of the effects of stress and corticosterone on behavior.

Stress and stress hormones affect a variety of behaviors and cognitive abilities. The influences of stress and glucocorticoids on motor function, however, have not been characterized although the presence of glucocorticoid receptors in the motor system has been documented. Here we demonstrate that stress and the stress hormone corticosterone influence motor system function in rats. Groups of adult female Long-Evans rats underwent either a daily stress-inducing procedure (immobilization or swimming in cold water) or oral corticosterone treatment. While these treatments continued, animals were tested in skilled reaching and skilled walking tasks for a period of 2 weeks. Both acute (day 1) and chronic (day 14) stress and corticosterone treatment reduced skilled movement accuracy in reaching and walking and increased performance speed. Furthermore, both chronic stress and chronic corticosterone treatment altered skilled movement patterns in the reaching task. These findings indicate that stress modulates motor system function and that these effects are partially mediated by glucocorticoids. To examine whether stress-induced changes might also derive from enhanced emotionality, rats were treated with the benzodiazepine diazepam. Based on an inverted U-shaped dose-response relationship, a moderate dose of diazepam significantly improved reaching success while at the same time reducing corticosterone levels. Thus, stress-associated emotional responses such as anxiety might account for diminished movement accuracy. These results suggest that stress affects the motor system both directly via hormonal changes and indirectly via changes in emotionality. These findings are discussed with respect to the role of stress in motor system function and movement disorders.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed2003

Contraction stress of flowable composite materials and their efficacy as stress-relieving layers.

BACKGROUND: The authors compared the polymerization contraction stress produced by flowable resin-based composites with stress values produced by nonflowable composites. They also measured the stress reduction produced by placing a precured layer of flowable composite under a nonflowable composite. METHODS: The authors first tested four flowable and six nonflowable composite materials for contraction stress in a tensiometer. In the second part of the study, they applied a 1.4-millimeter-thick layer of flowable composite or unfilled resin and precured it in the test apparatus to assess the stress relief produced by a low-modulus material during light curing of a subsequent layer of highly filled composite. Flexural moduli of the precured materials were determined via a three-point bending test. RESULTS: The stress values ranged between 6.04 and 9.10 megapascals. The authors found no significant differences in stress between flowable and nonflowable composites. Microfilled composites produced lower contraction stress than did hybrids. The flexural modulus of the flowable composites varied between 4.1 and 8.2 GPa. Regarding the effect of a precured layer of composite on contraction stress, the authors observed significant reductions with only one of the flowable materials and with the unfilled resin. CONCLUSIONS: The flowable composites produced stress levels similar to those of nonflowable materials. Most of the flowable materials tested did not produce significant stress reductions when used under a nonflowable composite. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: Using a flowable resin-based composite as a restorative material is not likely to reduce the effects of polymerization stress. When used in a thin layer under a nonflowable composite, the stress reduction depended on the elastic modulus of the lining material.

Composite Resins↗
PubMed2004

[The impact of the type of anesthesia on stress-realizing and stress-limiting mechanisms of the immune system in gerontological patients at abdominal surgeries].

Surgical stress resulting from the operative morbidity and narcosis aggravates the associated age-related and secondary immunodeficiency of gerontological patients at surgeries. Stress hormones have a strong depressing effect on the immunity by forming stress immunodeficiency. Not only high blood level determines the damaging effect of stress hormones but also the activity of stress-limiting mechanisms of the immune system protect it from the damaging effect of stress hormones. In this connection, the impact of operative morbidity and anesthetic aggression on the activity of stress-realizing and, in particular, stress-limiting mechanisms plays an important role because of the frequency of postoperative complications in gerontological patients namely. We observed patients operated on the abdominal cavity by urgent indications with a delay or based on a schedule under conditions of epidural anesthesia (45 patients), spinal anesthesia (43 patients) and general anesthesia (41 patients). The analysis of data obtained shows that different types of anesthesia have different effect on the plasmic cortisol level and activity of stress-realizing and stress-limiting systems. Thus, in case of epidural anesthesia of gerontological patients it was possible to observe the reduction of the high plasmic cortisol level and activation of stress-limiting reception of immunocompetent cells contributing to the preservation of the immune function. The increased plasmic cortisol level accompanied spinal anesthesia applied to such patients. However, it did not suppress the stress-limiting reception protecting the immunity against the damaging action of cortisol. In case of general anesthesia of gerontological patients it was possible to observe the increased blood cortisol level and decreased activity of protective stress-limiting receptors contributing to the formation of glucocorticoid immunosuppression.

Abdominal Cavity↗
PubMed2026

Validation of a Turkish Translation of the Stress in Emergency Healthcare Professionals: The Stress Factors and Manifestations Scale.

AIM: The primary duties of emergency healthcare professionals (EHPs) are to provide emergency patient care to acutely ill and injured individuals. Due to the nature of their work, EHPs operate under constant stress, often requiring rapid decision-making, swift action, and the delivery of necessary medical care in life-or-death situations, sometimes under inadequately safe conditions. Therefore, the aim of this study is to determine the validity and reliability of the Emergency Healthcare Professional Stress Factors and Symptoms (SEHP:SFMS) Scale in Turkish for identifying stress factors and symptoms in emergency medical care professionals providing emergency patient care services. DESIGN: A methodological study design was used in this study. METHODS: The study was conducted with the participation of 211 EHPs from employees working in emergency care institutions affiliated with the Mu&#x11f;la Provincial Health Directorate between November 2023 and June 2024. Data were collected via a face-to-face survey. Data were analysed using Lawshe content validity ratio, Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin coefficient, Bartlett test, exploratory factor analysis, principal component analysis, Varimax factor rotation method, confirmatory factor analysis, Cronbach's &#x3b1; internal consistency coefficient, convergent validity, discriminant validity, test-retest, and Spearman correlation coefficient tests. RESULTS: The linguistic translation and cultural adaptation of the SEHP:SFMS showed strong performance. The scope validity index of the scale is 0.83. The item-total correlation values of the scale were found to be between 0.486 and 0.794, and the factor loadings were between 0.474 and 0.816. Confirmatory factor analysis fit indices: &#x3c7;2&#x2009;=&#x2009;248.727; df&#x2009;=&#x2009;101; n&#x2009;=&#x2009;211; p&#x2009;=&#x2009;0.000; &#x3c7;2/df&#x2009;=&#x2009;2.463; RMSEA&#x2009;=&#x2009;0.083; CFI&#x2009;=&#x2009;0.914, SRMR&#x2009;=&#x2009;0.052, which was found to be compatible and acceptable with the proposed 3-factor model. The Cronbach's &#x3b1; reliability coefficient of the scale was 0.931, and the total variance was 61.97%. CONCLUSIONS: SEHP:SFMS is a valid and reliable tool to assess stress factors and symptoms of Turkish emergency healthcare professionals. Its use improves the quality of emergency care. PATIENT OR PUBLIC CONTRIBUTION: These study findings have been used to create a tool with Turkish validity and reliability that allows for the examination of stress factors among healthcare professionals working in emergency and critical services. Identifying and reducing stress factors among healthcare professionals is crucial for the delivery of quality healthcare services. It can also be used to develop targeted interventions and ongoing strategies to facilitate improved clinical supervision and mentoring. IMPLICATION FOR NURSING PRACTICE: Nurses in emergency departments, which are among the most stressful, dynamic, intense, life-saving, and critical environments in healthcare institutions, and where life-saving treatment is administered, are at high risk of experiencing psychological trauma. Trauma experienced in the work environment is a significant problem for nursing. The consequences of trauma negatively affect nurses and institutions. Studies show that post-traumatic stress, anxiety, depression, and burnout are commonly observed in emergency department nurses. In this sense, understanding the stress and stress factors experienced by nurses can guide future interventions. The results of this study are considered important in making visible the stress and stress factors experienced by nurses in the emergency department, and also in guiding managers and nurses working in this field in terms of preventive and protective measures.

Humans↗
PubMed1990

Neonatal chronic stress induces subsensitivity to chronic stress in adult rats. I. Effects on forced swim behavior and endocrine responses.

An influence of early stimulation on sensitivity to acute stress in adulthood has been reported. The purpose of the present work was to determine the effect of exposure of male and female rats to three models of chronic stress (unpredictable stress, cold stress and handling) from day 2 to day 15 of life on behavioral and endocrine sensitivity to chronic stresses in adulthood. The chronic stresses applied in adulthood were a model of intermittent cold stress (daily 30-min sessions at -20 degrees C for 15 days) and the Katz's model of unpredictable chronic stress (15 days). Forced swim behavior and serum concentration of the stress-sensitive hormones, corticosterone and prolactin, were chosen to investigate stress sensitivity. It was found that all neonatal treatments stimulated body weight gain, did not cause infant mortality and did not affect forced swim behavior as adult. The repetitive exposure to cold stress in adulthood did not cause major impairment of forced swim behavior and did not affect basal levels of serum corticosterone and prolactin in either control or experimental rats. These findings support the view that repeated stressors can induce behavioral and endocrine adaptation in rats. The neonatal treatments did not affect this characteristic. The exposure of control rats to the unpredictable stress model severely impaired forced swim behavior and increased basal levels of serum corticosterone and prolactin. This observation conforms to the view that standard laboratory rats cannot adapt to unpredictable chronic stress. This has been reported to cause a behavioral depression syndrome comprising forced swim deficit and endocrine alterations.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Aging↗
PubMed2006

Stress responsive DEAD-box helicases: a new pathway to engineer plant stress tolerance.

Abiotic stresses including various environmental factors adversely affect plant growth and limit agricultural production worldwide. Minimizing these losses is a major area of concern for all countries. Therefore, it is desirable to develop multi-stress tolerant varieties. Salinity, drought, and cold are among the major environmental stresses that greatly influence the growth, development, survival, and yield of plants. UV-B radiation of sunlight, which damages the cellular genomes, is another growth-retarding factor. Several genes are induced under the influence of various abiotic stresses. Among these are DNA repair genes, which are induced in response to the DNA damage. Since the stresses affect the cellular gene expression machinery, it is possible that molecules involved in nucleic acid metabolism including helicases are likely to be affected. The light-driven shifts in redox-potential can also initiate the helicase gene expression. Helicases are ubiquitous enzymes that catalyse the unwinding of energetically stable duplex DNA (DNA helicases) or duplex RNA secondary structures (RNA helicases). Most helicases are members of DEAD-box protein superfamily and play essential roles in basic cellular processes such as DNA replication, repair, recombination, transcription, ribosome biogenesis and translation initiation. Therefore, helicases might be playing an important role in regulating plant growth and development under stress conditions by regulating some stress-induced pathways. There are now few reports on the up-regulation of DEAD-box helicases in response to abiotic stresses. Recently, salinity-stress tolerant tobacco plants have already been raised by overexpressing a helicase gene, which suggests a new pathway to engineer plant stress tolerance [N. Sanan-Mishra, X.H. Pham, S.K. Sopory, N. Tuteja, Pea DNA helicase 45 overexpression in tobacco confers high salinity tolerance without affecting yield. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 102 (2005) 509-514]. Presently the exact mechanism of helicase-mediated stress tolerance is not understood. In this review we have described all the reported stress-induced helicases and also discussed the possible mechanisms by which they can provide stress tolerance.

DNA Helicases↗
PubMed2000

Toward an interpersonal life-stress model of depression: the developmental context of stress generation.

The validity of a developmentally based life-stress model of depression was evaluated in 88 clinic-referred youngsters. The model focused on (a) the role of child-environment transactions, (b) the specificity of stress-psychopathology relations, and (c) the consideration of both episodic and chronic stress. Semistructured diagnostic and life-stress interviews were administered to youngsters and their parents. As predicted, in the total sample child depression was associated with interpersonal episodic and chronic stress, whereas externalizing disorder was associated with noninterpersonal episodic and chronic stress. However, the pattern of results differed somewhat in boys and girls. Youngsters with comorbid depression and externalizing disorder tended to experience the highest stress levels. Support was obtained for a stress-generation model of depression, wherein children precipitate stressful events and circumstances. In fact, stress that was in part dependent on children's contribution distinguished best among diagnostic groups, whereas independent stress had little discriminative power. Results suggest that life-stress research may benefit from the application of transactional models of developmental psychopathology, which consider how children participate in the construction of stressful environments.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Prenatal stress affects behavioral reactivity to an intense stress in adult female rats.

In rats, prenatal stress has been shown to influence behavioral and neuroendocrinological immediate responsivity to several kinds of mild stress in adulthood. Indeed, prenatal stress increases anxiety-like behavior, depressive-like disturbances and alters the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis response to stress. However, long-term effects of an intense stress on behavior of prenatally stressed rats remain unknown. Moreover, most studies focus on male offspring. The aim of our study was to evaluate long-term behavioral effects of an aversive procedure consisting of an intense footshock (2 mA, 10 s) followed by three weekly situational reminders in prenatally stressed female rats. Prenatal stress was achieved by restraining the pregnant dams under bright light three times per day for 45 min during the last week of pregnancy. The aversive procedure induced long-term behavioral alterations in adult animals: an increase of immobility in the footshock chamber, hypoactivity in a novel environment and decreased avoidance of an "aversive-like" context. Interestingly, the procedure induced opposite effects in control and prenatally stressed females, suggesting bi-directional manifestation in some situations. In conclusion, prenatal stress affects behavioral response to an intense footshock associated with repeated situational reminders. These results suggest that early stress may interact with later ability to cope with intense stress in adulthood.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

The effect of an integrated stress management program on the psychologic and physiologic stress reactions of peptic ulcer in Korea.

The purpose of this study was to identify the effects of an integrated stress management program on symptoms of stress and ulcer healing in a sample of Koreans at a major medical center in Seoul, Korea. The study employed an experimental design with two treatment groups. One treatment group (n=23) participated in an integrated stress management program that consisted of seven 1h sessions over a 4-week period. A second treatment group (n=24) was only given a tape on progressive muscle relaxation. Data were collected over a 4-month period on 47 subjects. Participants were randomly assigned to the two treatment groups. Symptoms of stress were measured by the symptoms of stress scale (Kogan, Self-regulation on Stress Reaction by Biofeedback, Korean Psychiatric Academic Society, Korea) translated into Korean. Stage of ulcer healing was evaluated by a physician using an endoscope. Physiologic stress reactions were measured by biofeedback equipment. The integrated stress management program treatment group reported significantly lower stress symptom scores than the progressive muscle relaxation-only group (t=3.66, P<0.001). The integrated stress management group also demonstrated a greater improvement in ulcer healing than the progressive muscle relaxation group (t=1.95, P<0.05). The integrated stress management program was more effective in decreasing self-reported stress symptoms and resulted in a more significant ulcer healing than the progressive muscle relaxation treatment.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1995

Gene expression in acute myocardial stress. Induction by hypoxia, ischemia, reperfusion, hyperthermia and oxidative stress.

It is apparent from the above discussion that acute stress, such as ischemia and reperfusion, hypoxia and reoxygenation, hyperthermia and oxidative stress, can rapidly potentiate the induction of genes for certain members of the HSP families and for antioxidants/antioxidant enzymes. Whether the stress response and induction of these genes have a direct role in myocardial protection is not known, but the induction of the expression of these genes are mostly associated with the preservation of myocardial cells from subsequent injury resulting from ischemia, hypoxia and reperfusion. The ubiquitous presence of some of these stress genes, such as for HSP 70 and catalase, in normal unstressed myocardium further suggests a role of these genes in many basic and essential biochemical and metabolic pathways. It is reasonable to speculate that the cells respond to the stress as a consequence of perturbations of one or more of the metabolic pathways by stimulating the induction of the stress genes of that particular pathway in which they participate. Thus, these genes are likely to be involved both in the protection and recovery/repair mechanisms. The precise mechanism by which myocardial cell recognizes and responds to a particular stress agent such as ischemia, hypoxia, hyperthermia or oxidative stress is not clear. While it is tempting to speculate that a generalized mechanism exists, applying to all different modes of stress response and gene induction, whether these agents induce the response via independent pathways or converge within a single point is entirely unclear. However, from the striking resemblance between the pattern of gene expression, especially with regard to HSP and antioxidant genes, it is reasonable to hypothesize the existence of a common and essential pathway of molecular signaling that leads to the expression of these stress genes (Fig. 2). The identification and characterization of the transcription factors that regulate the expression of the genes induced by these forms of stress should greatly facilitate our future understanding of the mechanism of stress response.

Animals↗
PubMed1986

Changes of tissue blood flow in mice loaded with SART (repeated cold) stress or restraint and water immersion stress and the effect of administered neurotropin.

In order to explore the peripheral microcirculation and to obtain an outline of autonomic innervation in SART (specific alternation of rhythm in temperature)-stressed (repeated cold-stressed) animals, which are regarded as model animals for clinical vagotonic-type dysautonomia, peripheral tissue blood flow was determined in mice, using the hydrogen clearance method. SART-stressed mice showed a decrease in gastric blood flow, no change in hepatic blood flow and an increase in dermal blood flow. In the mice exposed to the restraint and water immersion stress (RWIS), a type of acute stress, in contrast with SART stress which is a subacute type, remarkable decreases were observed in gastric, hepatic and dermal blood flows. Changes of both gastric and dermal blood flow in SART-stressed mice were dose-dependently prevented and maintained within normal limits by the treatment with Neurotropin, a sedative analgesic which is an extract isolated from vaccinia virus-inoculated and inflamed skin of rabbits. In RWIS-loaded mice, Neurotropin exhibited a great preventive effect on changes of blood flow in the stomach, a slight effect in the liver, and no effect in the cutis. When mice were loaded with SART stress after left-cervical vagotomy, SART stress failed to elicit any decrease in gastric blood flow. In SART-stressed mice treated with 6-hydroxydopamine, gastric and dermal blood flows tended to show a further decrease and increase, respectively, over and above the changes caused by SART stress. From these results, it is suggested that SART-stressed mice may have decreased gastric parasympathetic tone, a decrease in sympathetic tone and also other anomalies such as increased tension of the sympathetic cholinergic vasodilator nerves in the cutis.

Animals↗