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PubMed2000

Detection of feigned recognition memory impairment using the old/new effect of the event-related potential.

Twenty-four undergraduate university students with no known neurological disorders completed the Recognition Memory Test (Warrington, A., 1984. Recognition Memory Test manual. Windsor, Berkshire: NFER-Nelson.) while event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded. Twelve subjects were instructed to feign a recognition memory deficit (malingering group), while the remainder served as controls. The malingerers performed poorly on the test compared to the control group. The 'old/new effect', an ERP measure thought to reflect recognition memory processes, did not differ between the groups, indicating recognition of previously learned material in the malingering group despite poor test performance. The study also revealed a second, early, old/new effect, maximal at left frontal sites in the malingering relative to the control group, suggesting task-related processing differences between the two groups. These effects appear to be of potential value in the detection of malingering of cognitive impairment in the clinical situation.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

Direct comparison of the neural substrates of recognition memory for words and faces.

For the purpose of identifying the relatively specific brain regions related to word and face recognition memory on the one hand and the regions common to both on the other, regional cerebral blood flow associated with different cognitive tasks for recognition memory was examined using [H215O]PET in healthy volunteers. The tasks consisted of recognizing two types of stimuli (faces and words) in two conditions (novel and familiar), and two baseline tasks (reading words and gender classification). The statistical analyses used to identify the specific regions consisted of three subtractions: novel words minus novel faces, familiar words minus familiar faces, and reading words minus gender classification. These analyses revealed relative differences in the brain circuitry used for recognizing words and for recognizing faces within a defined level of familiarity. In order to find the regions common to both face and word recognition, overlapping areas in four subtractions (novel words minus reading words, novel faces minus gender classification, familiar words minus reading words, and familiar faces minus gender classification) were identified. The results showed that the activation sites in word recognition tended to be lateralized to the left hemisphere and distributed as numerous small loci, and particularly included the posterior portion of the left middle and inferior temporal gyri. These regions may be related to lexical retrieval during written word recognition. In contrast, the activated regions for face recognition tended to be lateralized to the right hemisphere and located in a large aggregated area, including the right lingual and fusiform gyri. These findings suggest that strikingly different neural pathways are engaged during recognition memory for words and for faces, in which a critical role in discrimination is played by semantic cueing and perceptual loading, respectively. In addition, the investigation of the regions common to word and face recognition indicates that the anterior and posterior cingulate have dissociable functions in recognition memory that vary with familiarity, and that the cerebellum may serve as the co-ordinator of all four types of recognition memory processes.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

The role of the hippocampus in recognition memory.

Amnesic patients with focal limbic lesions in the hippocampus demonstrate normal or near normal performance on the Warrington Recognition Memory Test (WRMT) suggesting that the hippocampi may not be critical structures in these tasks. To further investigate the role of the hippocampi in recognition memory we examined WRMT performance in 99 (44 right, 55 left) patients with unilateral temporal lobe pathology identified on MRI. The patients were divided into two groups. Group 1 (n = 90) were patients with hippocampal sclerosis (40 right, 50 left). Group 2 were patients with MRI evidence of hippocampal sclerosis and cortical dysgenesis, (4 right, 5 left). Analyses of variance revealed a significant interaction between laterality and pathology group for the recognition memory for words (RMW) task. The patients with left hippocampal sclerosis and cortical dysgenesis obtained significantly lower scores than the other patient groups. There was a significant effect of pathology group on the recognition memory for faces task (RMF). The patients with hippocampal sclerosis and cortical dysgenesis obtained lower scores than the patients with hippocampal sclerosis, regardless of the laterality of their pathology. Post-operative WRMT deficits in the right and left hippocampal sclerosis groups were material specific. The clinical utility of the WRMT in the pre-surgical investigation of temporal lobe epilepsy patients and the role of the hippocampus in recognition memory are discussed in the light of these findings.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

Recognition memory and recollective experience in Alzheimer's disease.

The phenomenal experience that accompanies the recognition of a previously presented stimulus seems to take at least two distinct forms. Recognition can occur when the stimulus evokes some specific experience in which the stimulus was previously involved, or, alternatively, when the stimulus gives rise only to feeling of familiarity without any recollective experience. These two kinds of conscious awareness can be measured in laboratory conditions by "remember" and "know" responses. A "remember" response indicates that recognising the stimulus brings back to mind some conscious recollection of its prior occurrence, whereas a "know" response indicates that recognising the stimulus is not accompanied by any conscious recollection of its prior occurrence. In the experiments reported here the relationship between recognition memory and conscious experience in Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients was investigated. The purpose of the experiments was to compare "remember" measures of conscious awareness in free recognition and forced-choice recognition memory for words and unfamiliar faces. The point of the experiments was to see whether AD patients' performance might be associated with a decrease in the relative incidence of "remember" responses as compared to normal controls (NC), and whether there was an effect of experimental material (words versus faces) on recognition performance and on recollective experience. In both experiments AD patients produced significantly fewer correct responses and fewer "remember" responses for correctly recognised items than NC. By contrast AD patients produced the same proportion of "know" responses to target items as compared to NC in all recognition conditions, with the exception of forced-choice recognition of faces where they gave more "know" responses to target faces than NC. These results are consistent with the assumption that recognition memory may entail two processes, only one of which gives rise to conscious recollection, and they suggest that an impairment of conscious recollection is responsible for the poor performance of AD patients in recognition memory. Implications of these findings for current theories of retrieval are discussed.

Aged↗
PubMed1997

Asymmetries in the effect of side of seizure onset on recognition memory following intracarotid amobarbital injection.

PURPOSE: To assess interhemispheric differences in recognition memory for objects during the intracarotid amobarbital sodium procedure (IAP). METHODS: The recognition memory for real objects of patients with either right (RTLE; n = 28) or left (LTLE; n = 22) temporal lobe epilepsy was assessed at baseline, and after left and right intracarotid amobarbital sodium injection. RESULTS: There were no differences between groups on baseline performance. Performance following injection ipsilateral to the side of seizure focus was relatively lower for the LTLE as compared with the RTLE group, but this difference did not reach statistical significance. However, performance following injection contralateral to the side of seizure focus was significantly lower for the RTLE as compared with the LTLE group. Within-group differences in performance after ipsilateral as compared with contralateral injection were significant for the RTLE but not the LTLE group. The difference in interhemispheric asymmetry in IAP memory performance between RTLE and LTLE groups was reflected in decreased ability to classify LTLE patients as compared with RTLE patients about side of seizure onset, using a clinically applicable decision rule. CONCLUSIONS: Recognition memory during the IAP for real objects, simultaneously named and presented visually during encoding, is mediated effectively by both the left and right hemisphere when there is no seizure focus present. However, memory appears to be more vulnerable to the presence of a seizure focus in the right as compared with the left hemisphere.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1998

Interaction of frontal and perirhinal cortices in visual object recognition memory in monkeys.

Monkeys were trained preoperatively in visual object recognition memory. The task was delayed matching-to-sample with lists of trial-unique randomly generated visual stimuli in an automated apparatus, and the stimuli were 2D visual objects made from randomly generated coloured shapes. We then examined the effect of either: (i) disconnecting the frontal cortex in one hemisphere from the perirhinal cortex in the contralateral hemisphere by crossed unilateral ablations; (ii) disconnecting the magnocellular portion of the mediodorsal (MDmc) thalamic nucleus in one hemisphere from the perirhinal cortex in the contralateral hemisphere; or (iii) bilaterally ablating first the amygdala, then adding fornix transection, then finally perirhinal cortex ablation. We found that both frontal/perirhinal and MDmc/perirhinal disconnection had a large effect on visual object recognition memory, whereas both amygdalectomy and the addition of fornix transection had only a mild effect. We conclude that the frontal lobe needs to interact with the perirhinal cortex within the same hemisphere for visual object recognition memory, but that routes through the amygdala and hippocampus are not of primary importance.

Amygdala↗
PubMed2004

Evaluation of visual recognition memory in MCI patients.

BACKGROUND: Neurofibrillary tangles seen early in Alzheimer disease (AD) initially appear in a subregion of the perirhinal cortex. In the monkey, damage to the perirhinal cortex impairs performance on visual recognition memory tasks. The authors evaluated impairment of visual recognition memory as a potential early diagnostic marker of AD. METHODS: The authors developed a visual delayed matching-to-sample task (DMS48) designed to assess visual recognition memory in humans. Twenty-three patients fulfilling the criteria of amnestic mild cognitive impairment (MCI) (mean Mini-Mental State Examination [MMSE]: 26.6, SD = 1.6) were recruited. All underwent a full neuropsychological evaluation, which included the Free and Cued Selective Reminding (FCSR) test. Their performance was compared with that of 10 patients with mild AD, 20 patients with moderate AD, 20 patients with Parkinson disease (PD), and 40 age-matched controls. RESULTS: Control subjects and patients with PD performed close to ceiling. Patients with mild AD had very low scores, while patients with moderate AD answered at random. MCI patients obtained scores that were between those of control subjects and patients with mild AD (78%, SD = 16%). MCI patients who failed on the DMS48 had lower scores on free recall (p < 0.05) and received less benefit from cueing (p < 0.01) on the FCSR than the other MCI, suggesting a profile of genuine memory impairment related to medial temporal lobe lesions. CONCLUSION: The DMS48, a test of visual recognition memory, is impaired early in the course of patients with MCI. Further studies are necessary to determine whether the evaluation of visual recognition memory may contribute to the identification of patients with AD.

Aged↗
PubMed1990

Recognition memory for words and faces in primary degenerative dementia of the Alzheimer type and normal old age.

The suitability of Warrington's Recognition Memory Test (RMT) for discriminating between patients with dementia of the Alzheimer type and nondemented elderly subjects was tested in a study with 44 patients (aged 59 to 94) and 45 normal elderly (aged 69 to 92). The patients showed a significant memory deficit, both in Recognition Memory for Words (RMW) and Recognition Memory for Faces (RMF), even when the scores were corrected for verbal intelligence score (WAIS Vocabulary) or a measure of visuoperceptual ability (Raven's Coloured Progressive Matrices, CPM). Word-face discrepancy scores did not differentiate between dementia and normal old age. At the 95%-specificity level, the sensitivity of RMW and RMF for the detection of memory impairment in dementia was 81% and 100% for subjects below 80, and, less satisfactory, 59% and 76% for subjects of 80 years or older. Correlational analysis showed that the patients' RMW and RMF scores were moderately correlated (r = .40). The significant correlation (r = .45) between CPM and RMF suggests that visuoperceptual deficits are involved in deficient face recognition.

Aged↗
PubMed1991

Visual recognition memory. Neurophysiological evidence for the role of temporal white matter in man.

A novel event-related potential (ERP) elicited by a visuospatial recognition memory task was recorded in 20 patients with temporal lobe epilepsy using depth electrodes sited in the temporal lobes. The ERPs comprised two components, an N400 and a P600, and were similar in morphology to the previously reported ERP to verbal recognition memory tasks. The two ERP components in both verbal and visuospatial tasks were dependent on stimulus type and our data suggest that they do not simply represent delayed P300 ERP responses. In 17/20 patients robust, reliable bilaterally present ERPs were elicited by both verbal and visuospatial memory tasks. N400 amplitude was larger in response to novel stimuli, whereas P600 amplitude was larger to repeated stimuli. P600 amplitude was larger in the right temporal lobe to both visuospatial and verbal stimulus material. N400 and P600 latencies did not vary with task, stimulus type or side of recording. In 3/20 patients, no ERPs were elicited by either memory task. In all 3 cases, unilateral temporal white matter abnormalities were demonstrated by magnetic resonance imaging. Behavioural measures, expressed in the form of standardized accuracy scores, did not differ from those of a normal control group, and hence are unlikely to account for the abnormalities in ERPs. These results are discussed with reference to the primate visual recognition memory pathway and suggest that ERPs to recognition memory tasks are generated by an interaction between the two homologous inferotemporal recognition memory pathways.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Neither perirhinal/entorhinal nor hippocampal lesions impair short-term auditory recognition memory in dogs.

Visual, tactile, and olfactory recognition memory in animals is mediated in part by the perirhinal/entorhinal (or rhinal) cortices and, possibly, the hippocampus. To examine the role of these structures in auditory memory, we performed rhinal, hippocampal, and combined lesions in groups of dogs trained in auditory delayed matching-to-sample with trial-unique sounds. The sample sound was presented through a central speaker and, after a delay, the sample sound and a different sound were played alternately through speakers placed on either side of the animal; the animal was rewarded for responding to the side emitting the sample sound. None of the lesion groups showed significant impairment in comparison either to their own preoperative performance or to the performance of intact control dogs. This was the case both for relearning the delayed matching rule at a delay of 1.5 s and for task performance at variable delays ranging from 10 to 90 s. From these findings we suggest that the tissue critical for auditory recognition memory is located outside both the perirhinal/entorhinal cortices and the hippocampus.

Amnesia↗
PubMed2005

Increasing the salience of fluency cues reduces the recognition memory impairment in amnesia.

The present study examined whether the recognition memory deficit in amnesia would be attenuated under conditions that increased the salience of study-induced fluency. Studied and unstudied items were drawn either from separate pools of letters (no-overlap condition) or from the same pool of letters (overlap condition). Study-induced fluency was more salient in the no-overlap than in the overlap condition, because in the no-overlap condition, such fluency occurred at the letter level as well as at the word level. The recognition memory impairment in amnesia was smaller in the no-overlap than in the overlap condition. These findings are consistent with the idea that enhancing the salience of fluency cues promotes reliance on a fluency heuristic that ordinarily is not fully engaged in amnesia, and reduces the recognition memory impairment in amnesia.

Amnesia↗
PubMed2006

Exploring the recognition memory deficit in Parkinson's disease: estimates of recollection versus familiarity.

Current theories postulate that recognition memory can be supported by two independent processes: recollection (i.e. vivid memory for an item and the contextual details surrounding it) versus familiarity (i.e. the mere sense that an item is old). There is conflicting evidence on whether recognition memory is impaired in Parkinson's disease, perhaps because few studies have separated recollection from familiarity. We aimed to explore whether recollection or familiarity is more likely to be affected by Parkinson's disease, using three methods: (i) the word-frequency mirror effect to make inferences about recollection and familiarity based on recognition of high- versus low-frequency words, (ii) subjective estimates of recollection (remembering) versus familiarity (knowing), and (iii) a process-dissociation procedure where participants are required to endorse only some of the previously studied items on a recognition memory test, but not others. We tested Parkinson's disease patients (n = 19 and n = 16, age range = 58-77 years and age range = 50-75 in Experiments 1 and 2, respectively) and age- and education-matched controls (n = 23 and n = 16 in Experiments 1 and 2, respectively). Overall, the Parkinson's disease group showed a reduction in recognition memory, but this appeared to be primarily due to impairment of familiarity, with a lesser decline in recollection. We discuss how this pattern may be related to dysfunction of striatal, prefrontal and/or medial temporal regions in Parkinson's disease.

Aged↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Effects of stress and hippocampal NMDA receptor antagonism on recognition memory in rats.

Exposures to uncontrollable stress have been shown to alter ensuing synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus and interfere with hippocampal-dependent spatial memory in rats. The present study examined whether stress, which impairs hippocampal long-term potentiation (LTP), also affects (nonspatial) hippocampal-dependent object-recognition memory, as tested on the visual paired comparison task (VPC) in rats. After undergoing an inescapable restraint-tailshock stress experience, rats exhibited markedly impaired recognition memory at the 3-h (long) familiarization-to-test phase delay but not at the 5-min (short) delay. In contrast, unstressed control animals showed robust recognition memory (i.e., they exhibited reliable preferences for novel over familiar objects) at both short- and long-delay periods. The impairing effect of stress on long-delay recognition memory was transient because 48 h after undergoing stress experience, animals performed normally at the long delay. Similar to stress, microinfusions of DL-2-amino-5-phosphonovaleric acid (APV), a competitive N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) antagonist that blocks LTP, into the dorsal hippocampus selectively impaired object-recognition memory at the long-delay period. Together, these results suggest that stress and intrahippocampal administration of APV affect recognition memory by influencing synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

Recognition memory in rats--I. Concepts and classification.

Recognition is the process by which a subject is aware that a stimulus has been previously experienced. It requires that the characteristics of events are perceived, discriminated, identified and then compared (matched) against a memory of the characteristics of previously experienced events. Understanding recognition memory, its underlying neuronal mechanisms, its dysfunction and alleviation of the latter by putative cognition enhancing drugs is a major research target and has triggered a wealth of animal studies. One of the most widely used animals for this purpose is the rat, and it is the rat's recognition memory which is the focus of this review. In this first part, concepts of recognition memory, stages of mnemonic processing and paradigms for the measurement of the rat's recognition memory will be discussed. In two subsequent articles (parts II and III) we will focus on the neuronal mechanisms underlying recognition memory in rats. Three major points arise from the comparison of paradigms that have in the past been used to assess recognition memory in rats. First, it should be realized that some tasks which, at face value, can all be considered to measure recognition memory in rats, may not assess recognition memory at all but may, for example, be based on recall rather than recognition. Second, it is evident that different types of recognition memory can be distinguished and that tasks differ in the type of recognition memory taxed. Some paradigms, for example, measure familiarity, whereas others assess recency. Furthermore, paradigms differ as to whether spatial stimuli or items are employed. Third, different processes, ranging from stimulus-response learning to the formation of concepts, may be involved to varying extent in different tasks. These are important considerations and question the predictive validity of the results obtained from studies examining, for example, the effects of putative cognition enhancing drugs.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Is associative recognition more impaired than item recognition memory in Schizophrenia? A meta-analysis.

Item recognition memory judgment can be based on two processes: item familiarity and/or the conscious recollection of the initial event. On the other hand, associative recognition relies preferably on conscious recollection. Since evidence points to a specific deficit of conscious recollection in schizophrenia, these patients could show greater impairment during associative recognition tasks relative to item recognition tasks. A meta-analysis of 23 studies of recognition memory in schizophrenia was conducted to test this hypothesis. The impairment is indeed 20% greater (p=0.04) for associative recognition relative to item recognition. This study supports the hypothesis of a specific conscious recollection deficit underlying episodic memory impairment in schizophrenia.

Association↗
PubMed1986

Further characterization of patients with amnesia after cardiac arrest: preserved recognition memory.

We observed that patients with amnesia after cardiac arrest had preserved recognition memory despite profound loss of recall memory. In the present study, rate of forgetting was measured in six amnesic subjects for both recall and recognition memory of verbal material. The data show that recall decayed significantly faster for the amnesic subjects than for controls, whereas the rate of forgetting for recognition memory was comparable in both groups. Dissociation between recall and recognition performance is a feature of the amnesic syndrome after cardiac arrest.

Adult↗
PubMed1976

Short-term recognition memory in relation to severity of head injury.

Short-term recognition memory for random shapes was studied in 24 patients with head injury. The severity of head injury as indexed by duration of coma was closely related to impairment in performance. Disruption of short-term recognition memory was associated with neurologic deficit, asphasic disturbance, and signs of brain stem involvement. Performance was not related to association value of the shapes irrespective of linguistic competence. The findings are discussed in relation to recent studies of continuous recognition memory after head injury and hypotheses concerning neurological dysfunction in head injury.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2001

Biased responding: a case series demonstrating a relationship between somatic symptoms and impaired recognition memory performance for traumatic brain injured individuals.

Biased responding on the Sternberg Recognition Memory Test was observed in four patients with traumatic brain injury. None of these individuals met the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual's (DSM-IV) criteria for malingering. Individual recognition memory scores were high shortly after injury, declined to chance or below at the 6- and 12-month evaluations, and then showed substantial recovery by the 24-month evaluation. Recall memory performance actually declined slightly across this same 2-year period. Recognition memory scores were related to the extent to which the patients endorsed somatic items on the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression (HAM-D). Poor performance was associated with high somatic scores. The relationship between memory and somatic scores on the HAM-D in this case series suggests that unconscious processes can influence memory performance and, because of this, that clinicians should not use such performance as a primary indicator of malingering. More importantly, biased responding and actual memory deficits may coexist. This is indicated in the current cases by the failure of recall memory to improve during the 2 years these patients were followed.

Adult↗