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PubMed2003

[European Union legislation related to patulin].

In the following review, European Union legislation concerning maximum level of patulin in foodstuffs was reported. Commission Regulation (EC) No 1425/2003 of 11 August 2003 amending Regulation (EC) No 466/2001, Commission Directive 2003/78/EC of 11 August 2003 laying down the sampling methods and the methods of analysis for the official control of the levels of patulin in foodstuffs and Commission Recommendation of 11 August 2003 on the prevention and reduction of patulin contamination in apple juice and apple juice ingredients in other beverages as regards patulin was reported.

Beverages↗
PubMed1992

Antitumor activity of patulin and structural analogs.

A comparison between the cytotoxicity and the antitumor activity of patulin and five structural analogs (isopatulin, dehydroisopatulin, dimethylisopatulin, trimethylisopatulin and isopropylisopatulin) has been established. In vitro assays using L 1210 and P 388 cells showed that the structure of the pyranic ring as well as the nature of the substituents influenced the observed activities. Among the five structural analogs of patulin assayed in vivo against Ehrlich carcinoma, L 1210 and P 388 leukemias, dehydroisopatulin was the only one to be active on all 3 types of tumors at a dose of 100 mg.kg-1.d-1. The ratio between the LD50 in mice and the active dose was 5 while with patulin it was 10. It can be assumed that the lactone function is not solely responsible for the activity of patulin and its structural analogs.

Animals↗
PubMed1990

Immunotoxicity testing of mycotoxins T-2 and patulin on Balb/c mice.

The effects of patulin and T-2 toxin were investigated on immunological responses of Balb/c mice. In vitro patulin had a stimulatory effect on splenocytes at lower concentration (1 nM to 10 nM) and strongly inhibited lymphocyte proliferation at higher concentrations (ID50 from 0.02 to 0.24 microM depending on mitogens). In the same experiments T-2 toxin was 100-fold more potent (ID50 from 0.7 to 2 nM). In vivo studies on immunity were performed in mice receiving Bordetella pertussis antigens and keyhole limpet haemocyanin. Patulin significantly reduced delayed type hypersensitivity to B. pertussis antigen and did not reduce anti-KLH antibody production. T-2 toxin had no effect on delayed type hypersensitivity and reduced anti-KLH antibody production. Splenocytes were harvested in mice with or without antigen stimulation to assess mitogenic responses. Patulin generally increased splenocyte proliferation, therefore T-2 toxin effect depended on the immunological status of mice and on the dose injected. At the lower doses (0.8 mg/kg), T-2 toxin enhanced responses to mitogen, but at the greater dose (1.6 mg/kg) T-2 toxin enhanced responses to mitogen of antigen stimulated mice and decreased responses of unstimulated mice.

Animals↗
PubMed1986

Induction of DNA single-strand breaks and DNA synthesis inhibition by patulin, ochratoxin A, citrinin, and aflatoxin B1 in cell lines CHO and AWRF.

Four mycotoxins, patulin, ochratoxin A, citrinin, and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), were compared for their cytotoxicity, DNA synthesis inhibition and DNA damage in CHO and AWRF cells. The concentrations causing a 50% inhibition of colony formation in CHO cells were 0.07, 33, 31, and 10 micrograms/ml, respectively, for patulin, ochratoxin A, citrinin, and AFB1. Values obtained for AWRF cells were 0.011, 6.4, 6.7, and 0.15 micrograms/ml, respectively. Patulin strongly inhibited DNA synthesis in both CHO and AWRF cells, at concentrations over 4 micrograms/ml. Ochratoxin A and citrinin elicited mild inhibition of DNA synthesis (up to 20%) at concentrations greater than 50 micrograms/ml. AFB1 at concentrations over 5 micrograms/ml strongly inhibited DNA synthesis in AWRF cells but stimulated DNA synthesis in CHO cells. In accordance with these findings, AFB1 induced single-strand breaks in the DNA of AWRF cells only. Patulin induced about the same levels of DNA breaks in both types of cells, at concentrations greater than 2 micrograms/ml. Citrinin and ochratoxin A produced DNA breaks in CHO cells, at a very high concentration of 200 micrograms/ml. The number of breaks induced in AWRF cells was not statistically significant. The results suggest that the different effects of AFB1 on CHO and AWRF cells are due to the different ability of these cells to metabolize AFB1 to the ultimate carcinogen AFB1-8,9-oxide by microsomal cytochrome P-450-dependent oxygenases. The effects of the other mycotoxins not requiring the metabolic activation were comparable for both cell types.

Aflatoxin B1↗
PubMed1977

Stability of patulin to sulfur dioxide and to yeast fermentation.

The affinity of patulin for sulfur dioxide (SO2) is much less than was previously reported and is of little significance at the SO2 concentrations (below 200 ppm) used in the processing of apple juice and cider. However, at concentrations of 2000 ppm SO2 and 15 ppm patulin, combination was 90% complete in 2 days. Removal of SO2 liberated only part of the patulin, which suggests that 2 mechanisms are involved: one reversible (opening the hemiacetal ring) and one irreversible (SO2 addition at the double bond). Test with 2 yeasts used in English commercial cider making confirmed that patulin is effectively removed during yeast fermentation.

Chemical Phenomena↗
PubMed1978

High pressure liquid chromatographic determination of patulin in apple juice.

Patulin was extracted from apple juice with ethyl acetate and the extract was purified by elution from a silica gel column with ethyl acetate-toluene. The eluate was concentrated, and patulin was determined by reverse phase high pressure liquid chromatography using a 25 cm Partisil-10 ODS column. The lower detection limit was 1 microgram/L and the mean recovery of patulin added to apple juice was 82.6 +/- 2.8 %. The patulin content ranged from less than 1 to 220 microgram/L for the 140 samples analyzed.

Beverages↗
PubMed1980

Effect of patulin on hepatic monooxygenase in male mice.

The in vivo effects of patulin on hepatic monooxygenase enzymes in male mice were examined after single and multiple exposures (i.p.) to the mycotoxin. The animals were exposed to a single dose of 1, 3 or 4.5 mg patulin/kg or daily doses of 1.0 mg/kg for 5 or 14 days. After single exposure no significant effect was observed on hexobarbital hydroxylation while aniline hydroxylase increased significantly at 3 mg/kg and at 48 hr. The demethylation of aminopyrine and ethylmorphine increased significantly 48 and 72 hr after 3.0 or 4.5 mg patulin/kg doses. A 12% increase was observed in cytochrome P-450 content 48 hr after exposure to 1 or 3 mg/kg. NADPH-cytochrome C reductase was enhanced significantly at all 3 dose levels at 48 hr. At 24 hr hepatic NADPH-dependent dehydrogenase activity increased 38 and 46% in animals exposed to a single dose of 3 mg patulin/kg, respectively. No effect of patulin was observed on the hepatic drug metabolizing enzymes examined except hexobarbital oxidation in mice exposed to multiple doses of patulin. Patulin at best was a weak inducer of the hepatic mixed function oxidase system.

Animals↗
PubMed1975

Microbiological assay of patulin, using Bacillus megaterium.

Bacillus megaterium NRRL 1368 was found to be sensitive to patulin and a suitable test organism for an accurate, quantitative bioassay of the toxin. The optimum conditions for the test were determined. The response of the organism to patulin was found to be linear between 2 and 80 mug. When compared to thin layer chromatographic and spectrophotometric assay methods, the bioassay was found to be comparable in accuracy, but less sensitive. The test was found to be sensitive to 1.7 mug patulin. The assay is rapid (12-15 hr), simple, and inexpensive and can be used to verify the toxicity of samples, as well as to quantitatively measure patulin in samples of liquid media, apple juice, and corn.

Bacillus megaterium↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Determination of patulin in apple juice by liquid chromatography: collaborative study.

An AOAC International-International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry-International Fruit Juice Union (AOAC-IUPAC-IFJU) collaborative study was conducted to evaluate a liquid chromatographic (LC) procedure for determination of patulin in apple juice. Patulin is a mold metabolite found naturally in rotting apples. Patulin is extracted with ethyl acetate, treated with sodium carbonate solution, and determined by reversed-phase LC with UV detection at 254 or 276 nm. Water, water-tetrahydrofuran, or water-acetonitrile was used as mobile phase. Levels determined in spiked test samples were 20, 50, 100, and 200 micrograms/L. A test sample naturally contaminated at 31 micrograms/L was also included. Twenty-two collaborators in 10 countries analyzed 12 test samples of apple juice. Recoveries averaged 96%, with a range of 91-108%. Repeatability relative standard deviations (RSDr) ranged from 10.9 to 53.8%. The reproducibility relative standard deviation (RSDR) ranged from 15.1 to 68.8%. The LC method for determination of patulin in apple juice has been adopted first action by AOAC INTERNATIONAL.

Beverages↗
PubMed2003

Liquid chromatography/mass spectrometric determination of patulin in apple juice using atmospheric pressure photoionization.

This paper describes a comparison between atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (APCI) and the recently introduced atmospheric pressure photoionization (APPI) technique for the liquid chromatography/mass spectrometric (LC/MS) determination of patulin in clear apple juice. A column switching technique for on-line extraction of clear apple juice was developed. The parameters investigated for the optimization of APPI were the ion source parameters fragmentor voltage, capillary voltage, and vaporizer temperature, and also mobile phase composition and flow rate. Furthermore, chemical noise and signal suppression of analyte signals due to sample matrix interference were investigated for both APCI and APPI. The results indicated that APPI provides lower chemical noise and signal suppression in comparison with APCI. The linear range for patulin in apple juice (correlation coefficient >0.999) was 0.2-100 ng mL(-1). Mean recoveries of patulin in three apple juices ranged from 94.5 to 103.2%, and the limit of detection (S/N = 3), repeatability and reproducibility were 1.03-1.50 ng mL(-1), 3.9-5.1% and 7.3-8.2%, respectively. The total analysis time was 10.0 min.

Beverages↗
PubMed1996

Kinetic analysis of the chronology of patulin- and gossypol-induced cytotoxicity in vitro.

Kinetic analyses of the mechanisms of patulin- and gossypol-induced cellular toxicity in an immortalized rat hepatocyte cell line were examined using a battery of vital fluorescence bioassays. Intracellular glutathione (GSH) content and intracellular Ca2+ ([Ca2+])i were monitored simultaneously using fluorescent probes requiring uv excitation (351-363 nm); reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, mitochondrial and plasma membrane potential, and intracellular pH were monitored simultaneously with visible wavelength probes (488 nm). Changes in gap junction-mediated intercellular communication (GJIC) were monitored using the gap FRAP technique. Cells were exposed to different concentrations of patulin (0, 1.0, 10, 100, and 1000 microM) or gossypol (0, 1.0, 3.0, and 10 microM). All parameters were monitored directly after addition of toxin for 20 min. The analyses provided the following chronology of cellular injury caused by patulin: simultaneous suppression of GJIC and GSH depletion --> ROS generation --> mitochondrial membrane depolarization --> simultaneous increase in [Ca2+]i and cytoplasmic acidification --> depolarization of plasma membrane. A distinct chronology of gossypol-induced cellular injury was also identified: simultaneous suppression of GJIC and generation of ROS --> cytoplasmic acidification --> simultaneous elevation of [Ca2+]i and partial depletion of GSH --> mitochondrial membrane depolarization --> depolarization of plasma membrane. This report indicates the utility of these vital assays as improved mechanistically based methods for toxicity testing in vitro.

Animals↗
PubMed1984

Behavioural and electrocortical spectrum power changes after intraventricular injection of patulin in rats.

The effects of patulin when given into the third cerebral ventricle of rats, on behaviour and electrocortical spectrum power have been investigated. Patulin (10 micrograms i.v.t.) produced behavioural sedation, hypoalgesia, tail rigidity, piloerection and postural changes. This symptomatology lasted approx. 3 h and was accompanied by slower frequency and larger amplitude potentials in the electrocorticogram (ECoG) and by an increase in total voltage power. A larger dose (50 micrograms) produced a more dramatic picture characterized by catatonic posture with kyphosis, loss of the righting reflex, tail rigidity and on a few occasions short-duration episodes of tonic-clonic convulsions. Such a symptomatology was accompanied by a flattening of ECoG activity with a significant fall in total voltage power, as well as in preselected bands (0-3, 3-6, 6-9, 9-12, and 12-16 Hz). A lower dose (1 microgram) of patulin, on the other hand, produced behavioural sedation without significant changes in ECoG spectrum power.

Animals↗
PubMed1988

Enhancing resistance and modulation of humoral immune response to experimental Candida albicans infection by patulin.

Mice receiving patulin (10 mg/kg) from 1 to 4 days showed enhancing resistance to intraperitoneal challenge with 10(8) viable Candida albicans at day 2. Resistance to C. albicans infection (10(6) blastospores) appeared to be unchanged after cyclophosphamide oral administration (60 mg/kg). Immunoglobulins levels (IgA, IgM, IgG) are marked depressed (10 to 75%) in mice infected and/or treated by patulin and cyclophosphamide. The results show that an increase of neutrophil count may be among the factor underlying the late increase in resistance to C. albicans after administration of patulin.

Animals↗
PubMed1976

[The influence of atmospheric gases on growth and toxin production of sterigmatocystin-and patulin-producing molds (author's transl)].

The influence of one-and two-sided regulated atmospheres with lower 02-and increased CO2-concentrations in comparison with air was studied on the growth and toxin-production of 4 different mycotoxin-producing molds (A. versicolor, P. expansum, P. urticae, B. nivea). Low O2-values in the atmosphere (2-0.5%) had scarely an influence on the development and toxinproduction in different nutrient media after 14 d at 25 degrees C. Only higher CO2-and lower O2-concentrations than that of the air (e.g. 40% CO2, 6% O2) reduced the sterigmatocystin-and patulin-production in nearly all cultures, whereas growth was only retarded insignificantly. Atmospheres with 90% CO2 and 10% air as well nitrogen atmospheres with 10% CO2 inhibited remarkably the growth of molds and prevented the toxin-production of nearly all strains. In pure N2-atmospheres most of the A. versicolor strains exhibited growth with toxic mycelia whereas only minimum growth of the patulin-producing species without any patulin synthesis had been observed.

Aspergillus↗
PubMed1977

[Patulin in foods of vegetable origin. 2. Several kinds of fruit and vegetables and fruit and vegetable products (author's transl)].

Patulin was found in fruit with spontaneous brown rot (bananas, pineapples, grapes, peaches, apricots) as well as in moldy compots and in sallow-thorn juice. Fruit, vegetables and fruit and vegetable product were artificially infected with Penicillium expansum, P. urticae and Byssochlamys nivea; patulin was subsequently found in peaches, apricots, greengages, bananas, strawberries, honeydew melons, tomatoes, red and green paprika, cucumbers and carrots; in several kinds of compot, in tomato juice and tomato pulp --but not in ketchup. The influence of the temperature on growth and toxin production is different in the various fungal strains; in the temperature range of 5 degrees C to 25 degrees C, however, the possibility of patulin synthesis must nearly always be expected.

Fruit↗
PubMed1976

[Patulin in foods of vegetable origin I. Pomaceous fruit and products made out of it (author's transl)].

Patulin can be detected in apples and pears which have spontaneously been affected with brown rot after storage at room temperature and at 1 degrees C. Spoilage phenomena of this kind can be caused by Penicillium expansum, but also by P. urticae and Bysssochlamys nivea. If apples are stored at room temperature following a 4--5 months' storage at 4 degrees C, the patulin content of the rotten parts of the apple tissue. In applie puree made under household conditions the patulin content of the initial material is reduced by about 90%.

Food Analysis↗
PubMed1989

Elimination of the toxic effects of patulin on Bacillus subtilis and B.megaterium by irradiation.

The bacteriological toxicity of patulin irradiated in aqueous solutions was investigated using two strains of bacteria, Bacillus subtilis and B.megaterium. The results of the plate cultivation test showed that the growth inhibition of both strains decreased in relation to absorbed dose. A dose of 1.8 kGy was sufficient to eliminate the bacteriological toxicity of patulin at an initial concentration of 125 micrograms/ml. There was good correlation between the concentration of patulin in the irradiated solution as measured spectrophotometrically and that calculated from the diameter of the inhibition zone.

Bacillus megaterium↗