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Average evoked responses and accompanying free associations elicited by subthreshold visual stimuli were studied to determine if a differential discrimination between two stimuli would be reflected in either or both of these responses. The results indicate that the effects of subliminal perception are encoded in the average evoked response and also influence the content of free associations.
In addition to its primary linguistic function, the Hebrew alphabet is sometimes used as a means of number notation (i.e., the system of gematria). Hebrew letters, Arabic numerals, Hebrew number names, and Hebrew letter names were used in a numerical size comparison task, in which two visually presented symbols were compared for numerical value while irrelevant variations in their physical size had to be ignored. A size congruity effect, indicated by faster responses when differences in physical and numerical size were consistent, was larger for Arabic numerals than for number names. The effect for Hebrew letters was similar to that for Arabic numerals and was stronger than that observed for letter names. These results suggest flexible processing of Hebrew letters, so that they function as ideographic symbols in an arithmetic context. A distance effect, indicated by an inverse relationship between reaction time and numerical distance, was found for all notations but was particularly strong for Hebrew letters.
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This Monograph aims to contribute to the information processing, the differential, and the developmental modeling of the mind, and to work these into an integrated theory. Toward this aim, a longitudinal study is presented that investigates the relations between processing efficiency, working memory, and problem solving from the age of 8 years to to the age of 16 years. The study involved 113 participants, about equally drawn among 8-, 10-, 12-, and 14-year-olds at the first testing; these participants were tested two more times spaced one year apart. Participants were tested with a large array of tasks addressed to processing efficiency (i.e., speed of processing and inhibition), working memory (in terms of Baddeley's model, phonological storage, visual storage, and the central executive of working memory), and problem solving (quantitative, spatial, and verbal reasoning). Confirmatory factor analysis validated the presence of each of the above dimensions and indicated that they are organized in a three-stratum hierarchy. The first stratum includes all of the individual dimensions mentioned above. These dimensions are organized, at the second stratum, in three constructs: processing efficiency, working memory, and problem solving. Finally, all second-order constructs are strongly related to a third-order general factor. This structure was stable in time. Structural equation modeling indicated that the various dimensions are interrelated in a cascade fashion so that more fundamental dimensions are part of more complex dimensions. That is, speed of processing is the most important aspect of processing efficiency, and it perfectly relates to the condition of inhibition, indicating that the more efficient one is in stimulus encoding and identification, the more efficient one is in inhibition. In turn, processing efficiency is strongly related to the condition of executive processes in working memory, which, in turn, is related to the condition of the two modality-specific stores (phonological and visual). Finally, problem solving is related to processing efficiency and working memory, the central executive in particular. All dimensions appear to change systematically with time. Growth modeling suggested that there are significant individual differences in attainment in each of the three aspects of the mind investigated. Moreover, each of the three aspects of the mind as well as their interrelations change differently during development. Mixture growth modeling suggested that there are four types of developing persons, each defined by a different combination of performance in these aspects of the mind. Some types are more efficient and stable developers than others. These analyses indicated that processing efficiency is a factor closely associated with developmental differences in problem solving, whereas working memory is associated with individual differences. Modeling by logistic equations uncovered the rates and form of change in the various dimensions and their reciprocal interactions during development. These findings are discussed from the point of view of information processing, differential, and developmental models of thinking, and an integrative model is proposed.
A total of 55 males aged 19.5 to 62 years who were infected with HIV were examined psychopathologically+ and neuropsychologically by A.R. Luria's methods. Twenty-one of these patients were homosexuals. Syphilis was recorded in 34.7% in this group. Lymphadenopathy was the major clinical sign of HIV infection. Symptoms of organic involvements+ of the central nervous system were revealed by a psychopathological method. Neuropsychological studies detected dysfunction of the right cerebral hemisphere, particularly in a group of homosexuals suffering from syphilis.
In a Sternberg experiment, the influence of rhythmic acoustic stimuli on the scanning rate of short-term memory was studied. During the experiment, 60 subjects heard rhythmic or arrhythmic impulse noises with different rates of repetition. Results showed that the scanning rate of short-term memory is lowest if the impulses are arrhythmic. With rhythmic impulses at high rate of repetition, an accelerated scanning rate was obtained. The results can be interpreted as consequences of interference processes and as adaptational effects of internal processing rhythms.
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Mental representation is a central construct in psychological development. A method for assessing the developmental level of representation of self and significant figures is described, and changes in the developmental level of these representations are reported in a sample of forty seriously disturbed, treatment-resistant adolescents and young adults in intensive, psychoanalytically oriented inpatient treatment lasting more than a year. Increased differentiation-relatedness of descriptions of self and significant figures (mother, father, and therapist) was significantly correlated with improved clinical functioning. Over the course of treatment, representations moved from descriptions of self and significant figures dominated by polarization and splitting to representations involving the emergence and consolidation of object constancy. Improved clinical functioning was correlated with more positive descriptions of self, mother, and therapist and, paradoxically, with more negative descriptions of father. Two prototypical case studies of these self- and significant-figure descriptions are presented, one for a borderline patient and one for a schizophrenic. Intense negative affect, predominantly anger, and a relative preservation of self-reflexivity are typical of the self- and object representations of borderline individuals, but representations in schizophrenic individuals are characterized by affective muting and marked disturbance in reflexive self-awareness. The assessment of cognitive-affective schemas of self and significant others provides a method for investigating therapeutic change and for identifying important differences among various forms of psychopathology.
We measured the mental sweating response (MSR) and the skin sympathetic nerve activity (SSNA). Mental arithmetic or recall questions first elicited SSNA and then elicited MSR. MSR was used as the trigger point of time 0 ms to average EEGs. The averaged EEGs contained slow wave fluctuations, which occurred 5 s prior to the MSR onset. The current source locations of the MSR-related potentials were estimated by EEG dipole tracing method in two subjects. Mental stress activated the inferior frontal gyrus 5.5 s prior to the MSR and then 0.5 s later, the lateral part of the hippocampus in a subject, and they activated the medial part of the amygdala 5 s prior to the MSR in another subject. Indirect contact of the brain with the mind associated with mental questions was discussed.