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PubMed1985

Illegitimate birth and deprivation: recent findings from an exploratory study.

The association between illegitimate birth and deprivation documented in studies from the 1950s is re-examined using data from an exploratory investigation of three cohorts of illegitimate children born in the 1970s. Because the link between illegitimate birth and disadvantage has been complicated by the complex set of interrelationships between illegitimacy, specific demographic characteristics of the illegitimate childbearing population, familial organization preceding and succeeding illegitimate birth and consequences for the illegitimate child and his mother, recent changes in the incidence, demographic patterning and familial configurations of illegitimacy are outlined before living conditions are described. In addition, control factors have been introduced in the study from which findings are reported to allow separation of the influences of illegitimacy from the impact of correlated demographic and familial variables. An examination of past and current living conditions in terms of housing, income, use of social services and child health reveals a continued association between illegitimate birth and relative deprivation. The persistence of disadvantage is related to the high incidence of single parenthood among illegitimate childbearers and the predominance of illegitimate childbearing among young, single, primiparous, poor women.

Child↗

PubMed1979

Models of illegitmacy: United States, 1969.

Three theoretical perspectives on illegitimacy, the anomic, the subgroup, and the demographic, are reviewed and compared. A composite causal model is then developed and estimated using areal data derived from the 1970 U.S. Census. While theoretical nonspecificity disallowed a definitive test, all three perspectives yielded valuable insight into the complex mechanisms underlying illegitimacy rates. Results indicate that variation in illegitimacy rates is systematically related to variation in social structure and that integration of the three positions should prove useful to further research.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1975

The impact of the New York State abortion law on black and white fertility in Upstate New York.

The availability of abortions on demand, as provided by the new New York State abortion law, had a profound effect on fertility in a large community with previously very restricted access to illegal abortions. Improved family planning and the availability of abbortions as a backup measure combines with a preference for a smaller family size led to a one-third reduction of live births in the short period since the new law became effective. Planning for paediatric and obstetric care had to be adjusted accordingly. The frequently hypothesized or reported secondary effects on illegitimacy or infant mortality could not be observed. The trend towards increasing illegitimacy was slowed down, but not reversed. Infant mortality continued its short-term erratic pattern; the trend towards a higher proportion of teenage pregnancies cancelled the effect that pregnancies at higher risk for infant death are also at higher risk for abortion.

Abortion, Legal↗

PubMed2006

Beyond medical futility: a proposed taxonomy of ultra vires acts in medicine.

When is a physician's act non-medical, and how might such non-medical acts be classified? One approach, analogous to the substantive due process inquiry employed by American courts weighing the constitutionality of legislative acts, would involve consideration of the following questions: 1) Is a legitimate medical goal being pursued? 2) Are the means being employed legitimately medical? 3) Are the goals and means appropriately related? Accordingly, a physician acts medically when employing legitimate and appropriate medical means in pursuit of a legitimate medical goal. In contrast, when the goals pursued or means employed are not legitimately medical, or when the two are not appropriately related, the act is medically ultra vires ("beyond the powers")--that is, an act beyond the physician's power or authority--and consequently non-medical. Medically ultra vires acts may be further sub-classified depending upon which prong of the above trident is defective. Where the goal of the act, though achievable, is not legitimately medical, the act is medically ultra vires because of goal illegitimacy, or medically ultra fines ("beyond the ends"). Where the means employed are not legitimately medical, the act is medically ultra vires because of means illegitimacy, or medically ultra modos ("beyond the means"). Where the means and goals are not appropriately related, the act is medically ultra vires because of means-goals disjunction, or medically ultra nexus ("beyond the connection"). Medical futility (where the medical goal in question, albeit legitimate, cannot be achieved by the act under consideration) represents the paradigmatic example of the latter.

Classification↗

PubMed1994

[A record-linkage study on risk factors for cause-specific infant mortality].

Infant death certificates were linked with birth certificates for infants born to residents of Tohoku, Tokai and Kyushu regions in 1989 (n = 409, 679, or about one-third of all births in Japan), to examine the effects of variables, as reported on birth certificates, on cause-specific infant mortality. "Certain conditions originating in the perinatal period" and "congenital anomalies" accounted for nearly 90 percent of neonatal deaths, while "congenital anomalies", "injuries and poisoning" and "sudden infant death" were responsible for about 65 percent of postneonatal deaths. Mortality rates for almost all causes of infant deaths, except injuries and poisonings, increased as birth weight decreased not only in the neonatal period but also in the postneonatal period. This suggests that low birth weight places some infants at higher risk of death, and conditions that lead to low birth weight independently contribute to the risk of infant death. Cox's proportional hazards linear model was used to assess the effects of variables on infant mortalities by causes of death. An extremely strong birth weight effect was noted for "certain conditions originating in the perinatal period" and "congenital anomalies". Being a male infant and late order of birth in multiparity were other risk factors for deaths from "congenital anomalies", while being a male infant, resident of Tohoku region and maternal stillbirth experience related to deaths from "certain conditions originating in the perinatal period". Elevated risks of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), of which mortality rate in Japan was considerably lower than those in most developed Western countries, i.e. 0.23 per 1,000 live births in 1989, were associated with low birth weight, being a male infant, low maternal age, late order of birth in multiparity and illegitimacy. Low maternal age, late order of birth in multiparity and illegitimacy, also, related significantly to increased risk of infant deaths for "injuries and poisoning". These results suggest the independent contributions of socioeconomic factors to infant mortality, especially postneonatal mortality, from SIDS, "injuries and poisonings".

Adult↗

PubMed1996

Life histories of single parents and illegitimate infants in nineteenth-century Sweden.

"This essay presents tentative findings for the Sundsvall area of Sweden, which is being studied in a recent project on the decline of infant and childhood mortality in the Nordic countries. The focus is on the complete reproductive histories of single mothers and the life expectancies among infants born to women who at least once in their reproductive life history experienced the birth of an illegitimate child. In Sundsvall, industrialization only temporarily affected the illegitimacy ratio, but its effect was obvious even in agrarian parishes. The number of illegitimate children per woman remained relatively stable over time, with the exception of the town of Sundsvall. It was more common in the urban environment to give birth to several illegitimate children. Mortality was also higher among these infants, but the negative effects can be seen equally among both legitimate and illegitimate children."

Birth Rate↗

PubMed1981

The factors that influence twinning rates.

In a study carried out in an African population in Western Nigeria and a Caucasian population in Aberdeen, Scotland, it was found that DZ twinning rates varied with maternal age and parity, the MZ twinning rate remaining fairly constant. However, women aged 30-34 were found to have the highest rate in Western Nigeria whereas the peak in Aberdeen population occurred in the older age group, 35-39 years. Other factors that influenced DZ twinning rates were maternal height, social class and ethnicity (in the Nigerian population), and illegitimacy (in the Aberdeen population). No significant association was found between twinning and maternal blood groups or season of the year in either of the two populations. An important factor that also influenced twinning in the two populations was the maternal serum FSH level. The levels were much higher in the Nigerian population than in the Aberdeen population. Furthermore, in the Aberdeen population, twin-prone and non-twin-prone women had similar serum FSH levels, whereas the levels were much higher in twin-prone women in the Nigerian population. This finding is consistent with the fact that the Nigerian population has a much higher twinning incidence (approximately 50 per 1,000 maternities) than Aberdeen population (approximately 12 per 1,000 maternities).

Adolescent↗

PubMed2005

Family formation and dissolution in an Aegean island.

This paper explores family formation and dissolution in the Aegean island of Paros over the period 1894-1998. The examined issues are: trends in age at marriage, age gap between spouses, age differentials among different occupational groups, age at widowhood, remarriage, illegitimacy and bridal pregnancy. The main findings confirmed that certain characteristics of the 'Mediterranean' marriage pattern, such as low age at marriage for females, high for males and large age gap between spouses, were present in the study population up until the 1980s. The feature of the family cycle that has changed most dramatically over the examined period is age at widowhood, which has increased spectacularly owing to the impressive progress in adult, and especially maternal, mortality that took place in Greece in the post-war years.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

Isonymic relationships in ethno-social categories (Argentinian colonial period) including illegitimate reproduction.

Surnames provide a useful method to study the structure of human populations for which biological data are not available. The isonymic method has had multiple applications, but difficulties emerge when dealing with groups where extramarital reproduction is common and the sample size is small, and even more so when only paternal surnames are taken into account.Therefore, it could be of interest to retain female surnames, including those of unmarried mothers. This study was carried out using all birth records froman Argentinian population in the colonial period, which was characterized by the presence of different ethno-social groups (Spanish, Indian and 'Mestizo'or mixed Spanish-Indian) and various reproductive patterns regarding legitimacy. Coefficient of relationship by isonymy (Ri) kinship matrices between geographical populations were obtained, and the results derived from sets of surnames (paternal, maternal of legitimate and illegitimate children,and all surnames in the registers) compared. The results show similar surname distribution regardless of the set of surnames and group considered. Kinship Ri matrices using paternal surnames, maternal surnames of legitimate children, maternal surnames of illegitimate children, and the set of whole surnames showed the same relationships among populations, indicating a similar pattern for Spanish, Indian and Mixed ethno-social groups. Mantel test correlation between all pairs of matrices was significant in all different ethno-social groups. The results suggest that in populations with high illegitimacy, such as that studied here, it is possible to include maternal surnames, even corresponding to single mothers, in order to consider total reproduction and therefore maximize sample size.

Argentina↗

PubMed1972

Urban variation in infant mortality from birth injury and atelectasis in England and Wales in 1958-67.

Variations in mortality attributed to birth injury and atelectasis in the 10 years 1958-67 have been investigated for each county borough of England and Wales. It became evident that diagnostic difficulties in separating these two causes must have been such that for statistical purposes they should be combined in a single rate.Variables likely to affect the local rates such as the sex ratio of births, and rates of illegitimacy and immaturity as an ill-defined cause of death appeared to affect the mortality levels in certain towns but not sufficiently to account for the wide variations apparent in those levels. It is concluded that local surveys are necessary in the towns with highest rates to uncover differences in numbers of births in hospital, in obstetric techniques and in quality of medical care.

Asphyxia Neonatorum↗

PubMed1994

Risk factors for SIDS in Japan: a record-linkage study based on vital statistics.

This study examines the effect of items as reported on birth certificates on sudden infant death. We linked infant death certificates with birth certificates for the infants born in 1989 to residents of the Tohoku, Tokai and Kyushu regions in Japan (n = 409,679), that is, about one-third of the infants born in Japan that year. The mortality rate from sudden infant death, including 88 deaths from sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) and 17 deaths from instantaneous death, was 25.6 per 100,000 live births. Elevated risk of sudden infant death was associated with low birthweight, late birth order, illegitimacy, male gender and young maternal age. These results correspond to previous studies from Western countries, suggesting a similar pattern for SIDS in Japan.

Birth Weight↗

PubMed1976

The secondary sex ratio in the United States 1969-71: association with race, parental ages, birth order, paternal education and legitimacy.

The simultaneous effects of several variables on the secondary sex ratio have been examined using data from over 5,000,000 births which occurred in the United States during 1969-71. The previously described negative association of birth order and sex ratio has been confirmed. For legitimate and illegitimate births combined, maternal age and paternal age are unimportant factors once account is made of birth order. This pattern obtains for both blacks and whites. The sex ratio for legitimate and illegitimate births is equivalent but the fact of legitimacy or illegitimacy may affect the association of the ratio with birth order and the parental ages. Paternal education is not significantly related to the ratio, but the highest probability of a male birth is found among fathers with intermediate levels of attainment. Even though the association between sex ratio and order of birth is highly significant in the statistical sense, the proportion of male births changes less than 2% over the extreme values of birth order. Furthermore, it is emphasized that the association accounts for only a very minor (less than 10%) proportion of the total variation in the ratio.

Birth Order↗

PubMed2001

Birth weight and cognitive function at age 11 years: the Scottish Mental Survey 1932.

AIMS: To examine the relation between birth weight and cognitive function at age 11 years, and to examine whether this relation is independent of social class. METHODS: Retrospective cohort study based on birth records from 1921 and cognitive function measured while at school at age 11 in 1932. Subjects were 985 live singletons born in the Edinburgh Royal Maternity and Simpson Memorial Hospital in 1921. Moray House Test scores from the Scottish Mental Survey 1932 were traced on 449 of these children. RESULTS: Mean score on Moray House Test increased from 30.6 at a birth weight of <2500 g to 44.7 at 4001-4500 g, after correcting for gestational age, maternal age, parity, social class, and legitimacy of birth. Multiple regression showed that 15.6% of the variance in Moray House Test score is contributed by a combination of social class (6.6%), birth weight (3.8%), child's exact age (2.4%), maternal parity (2.0%), and illegitimacy (1.5%). Structural equation modelling confirmed the independent contribution from each of these variables in predicting cognitive ability. A model in which birth weight acted as a mediator of social class had poor fit statistics. CONCLUSION: In this 1921 birth cohort, social class and birth weight have independent effects on cognitive function at age 11. Future research will relate these childhood data to health and cognition in old age.

Age Factors↗

PubMed1972

Effects of legal abortion on gynaecology.

The effect of the Abortion Act on gynaecological work in one provincial teaching hospital is that despite an increase in patient turnover of 45% the waiting list has increased by 200%. It is suggested that the Act has had little effect on the birth rate or illegitimacy and that there may have been an increase in criminal abortion.

Abortion, Illegal↗

PubMed1996

[On marriage and family trends in the Czech Republic in the mid-1990s].

"This paper discusses the latest trends in marriage and family behaviour in the Czech Republic. These trends show profound changes as compared with the situation before 1989.... It is claimed here that the decrease of the marriage rate and the fertility rate, and gradual increase of the age at first marriage and increase of illegitimacy rate are normal and even necessary characteristics of modern democratic societies." (SUMMARY IN ENG)

Czech Republic↗

PubMed1987

[High postneonatal mortality of infants in North Rhine Westphalia].

Infant mortality in North-Rhine Westphalia was increased above the national average throughout the postwar period until today. To clarify the underlying causes the official death certificates of infants who died during their first year were linked to their respective birth certificates. Thus, the amount of data about each individual case was increased considerably. The information collected was then evaluated. An especially high mortality was associated with the maternal risk factors illegitimacy, age below 20 and Turkish nationality. Perinatal mortality was high in the groups of Turkish nationals, and unmarried mothers. Socially underprivileged groups on the whole proved to contribute a high amount of postneonatal mortality. Predominant causes of postneonatal mortality were infections, injuries and the diagnosis "sudden infant death syndrome".

Birth Weight↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Infant mortality in Newark, New Jersey. A study of sociodemographic and medical factors.

Newark, a metropolitan industrial town, experienced the highest infant mortality of any major city in the United States in the 1960s and early 1970s. Between 1970 and 1973, however, infant mortality among non-whites in this city declined strikingly. This decline could not be directly related to declines (a) in birth rates, (b) in the proportions of babies of low birth weight, (c) in the proportions of babies born to mothers in unfavorable age groups, (d) in the general fertility rates, or (e) in the illegitimacy rates. The decline may have been related (a) to the removal from childbearing cohorts of the group of females in the population--as yet undefined--whose babies would have been at high risk of infant mortality, (b) to the falling birth rate, (d) to better postnatal care--or to all of these factors. The study data suggest a multifactorial basis for the precipitous decline and also suggest that further major reductions in infant mortality among both nonwhites and whites will require better definition of the causes of low birth weight.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1977

The Jerusalem perinatal study: the first decade 1964--73.

This paper summarizes the main findings concerning Jewish births in the record-linked Jerusalem Perinatal Study. In the decade 1964--73 there were 63,638 births in which the birth weight was at least 1,000 g. The late fetal mortality rate was 9.1/1,000, and the neonatal and infant death rates were 10.1 and 15.5/1,000, respectively. The demographic characteristics of births changed over the decade, with a decrease in the proportion of high birth orders, of mothers with little education, of immigrants from Asia and North Africa, and of marriages within the same group of origin. Fertility fell, especially at the extremes of reproductive life. Illegitimacy was 1.2%. Year-by-year variations in mortality are discussed and the relationship of mortality to maternal age and education, birth order, social class, group of origin and birth weight are described. Frequencies of specific congenital malformations, infant and child admissions to hospital and various obstetric complications are also reported. Changes in obstetric interventions over the decade included an increasing proportion of induced labors, cesarean sections, forceps and vacuum deliveries, and interventions in the third stage of labor. The paper briefly indicates ways in which the data bank of the Jerusalem Perinatal Study is being exploited for a wide variety of health studies.

Adolescent↗