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PubMed1992

Friendship in adolescence.

This article reviews current theory and research on adolescent friendship and offers a framework in which friendship is developmentally characterized by reciprocity, co-construction and consensual validation. Three areas of research are reviewed: (1) the relative influence of parents and peers, (2) popularity among peers, and (3) gender differences in friendship. These conclusions are drawn: (1) although peer influence increases during adolescence, parents remain strong socializing agents throughout adolescence; (2) popularity status is associated with social behavior. These behaviors are related to differential developmental outcomes for adolescents; (3) studies on the socialization of gender need to take into account the cultural context and historical changes in male-female distinctions. After years of neglect, social scientists have found friendship to be an important vehicle for psychological and psychiatric development. For example, a promising new development is the use of peer interaction as a therapeutic tool for troubled adolescents.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1997

The adaptive value of 'friendships' to female baboons: experimental and observational evidence

Lactating female baboons, Papio cynocephalusoften maintain close associations with particular males. There are at least three proposed benefits of 'friendships' to females: (1) male protection against potentially infanticidal males; (2) male protection against harassment by dominant females; (3) male attachment to an infant that develops into future care of juveniles. These hypotheses were examined in a population of chacma baboons, P. c. ursinusin which male infanticide accounted for at least 38% of infant mortality. Almost all mothers of young infants formed strong bonds with one or two males with whom they had copulated during the cycle in which they conceived their infants. Females were primarily responsible for maintaining friendships during lactation, but they terminated these relationships if their infants died. In playbacks of females' screams, male friends responded more strongly than control males. They also responded more strongly to the screams of female friends than to the screams of control females. Following an infant's death, however, male friends responded less strongly than control males to the same females' screams. Finally, male friends responded more strongly than control males to playback sequences in which female screams were combined with the threat vocalizations of a potentially infanticidal alpha male, but not when female screams were combined with the threat calls of a non-infanticidal male or the alpha female. Both observations and experiments suggest that the benefits of friendships to females derive from the protection of their infants against infanticide.1997The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour

Journal Article↗
PubMed1997

Adolescent friendships mediating childhood adversity and adult outcome.

This interview-based study compares the friendships of 50 girls, aged 15-16, identified on the basis of their childhood experiences as being at-risk for difficulties in early adult partnerships, with the friendships of 50 girls of the same age from an inner-city school. Key differences in the features of both romantic and non-romantic adolescent friendships between the two groups of girls give a clearer understanding of the processes linking childhood adversity and poor adult outcome.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2001

The quality of adolescents' friendships: associations with mothers' interpersonal relationships, attachments to parents and friends, and prosocial behaviors.

Adolescents' friendship quality and observed emotional expression with their best friends were predicted from reports of their mother's interpersonal relationships-specifically the quality of her marriage and social network. Two models explaining these relationships received support. Consistent with an Attachment Theory model, adolescents' perceptions of marital quality predicted attachment security with mother, father and friends. Security of attachment to friends in turn predicted best friendship quality, but not affective behavior with the friend. A Social Learning Theory model was also supported, in which perceptions of both marital quality and mother's social network quality predicted adolescents' prosocial behavior. Prosocial behavior in turn predicted both best friendship quality and affective behavior with the friend.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1991

Facilitating friendship formation in late life: puzzles and challenges.

Considerable evidence indicates that friendships contribute to the psychological well-being of older adults. Seeking ways to help lonely older adults form new friendships thus makes a good deal of sense, but as the disappointing results reported by Heller et al. (1991) indicate, translating this conceptually sound goal into a practical reality presents many challenges. This commentary seeks to build upon the authors' analysis of factors that may have undermined the success of their intervention by discussing the social contexts that may be most conducive to friendship formation in late life and by considering whether kin ties represent a more viable focus of intervention efforts than do peer ties.

Aged↗
PubMed2005

The impact of first-grade "friendship group" experiences on child social outcomes in the fast track program.

Many interventions for children's behavior problems successfully utilize a group format for social skills training, providing opportunities for practice and performance feedback from peers. Recent studies however, suggest that grouping aggressive children together may reduce intervention effectiveness or even increase risk. The present study examined the relative impact of children's own behavior and their experiences with peers in the first-grade "friendship groups" of Fast Track, a multi-component preventive intervention program. Two-hundred sixty-six children (56% minority, 29% female) participated in 55 friendship groups. Children's own positive and negative behavior in friendship groups was related to relative improvements in social cognitive skills, prosocial behavior, and aggression, assessed through child interviews, teacher ratings, and peer sociometric nominations. Results from hierarchical linear models also revealed that the amount of peer escalation children received for their disruptive behavior during sessions impeded some intervention gains, whereas mere exposure to other children's positive or negative behavior was rarely related to outcomes.

Aggression↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Variability in cigarette smoking within and between adolescent friendship cliques.

Research has consistently shown that adolescent smoking is related to friends' smoking, yet smoking in the context of adolescent peer groups (friendship cliques) has been little studied. Formal network analysis was used to identify 87 adolescent friendship cliques in a sample of 1,092 ninth graders at five schools. There was intraclique homogeneity and interclique heterogeneity in current cigarette smoking, confirming that smokers tend to be in cliques with smokers and nonsmokers tend to be with nonsmokers. Most cliques were comprised entirely or mostly of nonsmokers, suggesting that friendship cliques may contribute more to the maintenance of nonsmoking than to the onset and maintenance of smoking. Prevention and research implications are discussed.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1989

Friendship patterns and community integration of family care residents.

Friendship patterns and community integration of mentally retarded persons living in family care homes were examined. A sample of 104 home providers completed a set of questionnaires which provided information on demographic characteristics, client maladaptive behavior, climate of the home, amount and variety of participation in community environments, and number and frequency of visitations with friends. Family care home residents were reported to have both handicapped and nonhandicapped friends and to participate in numerous community environments. Other evidence, however, raised questions about the selection of friendships and the independence of community integration. Correlates of community participation and friendship visits were examined. Results are discussed in terms of possible implications for family care services.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Attachment contexts of adolescent friendship and romance.

The purpose of this study was to compare memories of attachments to parents, friends, and romantic partners in relation to the maintenance of high school friendships and romantic relationships. College students recorded the length of their friendships and romantic relationships during high school and rated the quality of each. They also rated their memories of attachments to parents, friends, and partners during that time. Parental attachments were the most reliable predictor of friendship outcomes and romantic attachments the most reliable predictor of romantic outcomes, but attachments to parents, friends, and partners each predicted unique variation in maintenance of romantic relationships.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1987

Friendship and dating relationships among French adolescents.

The focus of this study is to analyse, within the same population, the specificity of friendship in comparison with dating relationships among French adolescents. The subjects interviewed (63 boys and 82 girls, aged 15 to 19 years), all volunteers, were recruited from three "classic and modern" senior high schools and three vocational high schools. The data were collected by using a semi-directive interview (recorded) dealing with subjects' friendships and dating relationships. All hypotheses were confirmed: (1) Friendship between partners of the same sex constitutes the main form of privileged interpersonal relationship in early and middle adolescence. (2) The specificity of interactions between partners lies in their mode of relationship: psycho-social exchanges are more intimate between friends than between dating partners. (3) Exchanges between friends are more intimate than between dating partners even when these partners have complete sexual intimacy.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2002

A multisource exploration of the friendship patterns of children with and without learning disabilities.

Friendship patterns of 117 children with learning disabilities (LD) and 115 children without LD in Grades 4-8 were examined. In comparison with children without LD, boys with LD had fewer mutual friends, children with LD had more friends with learning problems and more younger friends, and children with LD in Grades 4-6 had less stable relationships. With regard to friendship quality, children with LD reported higher levels of conflict, lower levels of validation, and more problems with relationship repair than did children without LD. The findings were discussed in terms of factors that have been found to enhance friendship such as proximity and similarity, and the social skills difficulties that have been associated with learning disabilities.

Child↗
PubMed2003

Moderators of the relation between popularity and depressive symptoms in children: processing strength and friendship value.

Children with low (n = 25) and high (n = 38) peer-rated popularity completed an emotional Stroop task, using negative social words, a self-report measure of friendship value relative to other domains of competence, and the Child Depression Inventory (CDI). Six months later, they completed the CDI again. In regression analyses, after controlling for prior CDI scores, social status interacted significantly with both Stroop and value measures (separate regressions). For unpopular children, both greater friendship valuing and greater negative social word Stroop interference predicted increases in depressive symptoms. In contrast, neither predictor was significant for popular children. In a third regression that included friendship value and Stroop interference as joint predictors of depression change, their effects remained significant and independent. We discuss these findings' implications for 3 models of depression; Champion and Power's social-cognitive theory of depression (L. A. Champion and M. J. Power, 1995), Pyszczynski and Greenberg's self-regulatory perseveration theory of depression (T. Pyszczynski & J. Greenberg, 1992), and Harter's model of global self-worth (S. Harter, 1985).

Child↗
PubMed2005

Friendship jealousy in young adolescents: individual differences and links to sex, self-esteem, aggression, and social adjustment.

Children's vulnerability to jealousy surrounding their best friends was explored in 2 studies. Study 1 involved 94 adolescents who reported on their friendship jealousy on a newly created measure. Results indicated that the jealousy measure had sound psychometric properties and produced individual differences that were robust over time and free from socially desirable responding. As expected, girls and adolescents with low self-worth reported the greatest friendship jealousy. Study 2 involved 399 young adolescents and extended the measurement of self-report jealousy to a broader age range. In addition, Study 2 included assessments of jealousy provided by friends and other peers. Self- and peer-reported jealousy were only modestly associated and had somewhat distinct correlates. Structural modeling revealed that young adolescents' reputation for friendship jealousy was linked to behaving aggressively and to broader peer adjustment difficulties. Both self- and peer-reported jealousy contributed to loneliness.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed2004

Intimacy expectations in same-sex friendships: a prototype interaction-pattern model.

A prototype interaction-pattern model of intimacy expectations was proposed. The central tenet of this model was that people develop knowledge of the patterns of relating that are likely to produce intimacy in a same-sex friendship. Further, it was posited that these interaction patterns are structured as prototypes, such that some patterns of relating are regarded as more likely to create a sense of intimacy than others. Support for this model was found in 6 studies. Interaction patterns depicting self-disclosure, emotional support, and the like were considered more prototypical of intimacy expectations than patterns depicting shared activities and practical support. Regarding gender, women rated intimacy interaction patterns higher than did men, particularly prototypical patterns. However, women and men agreed that prototypical interaction patterns were more indicative of intimacy in a friendship than nonprototypical patterns. Implications for the controversy over whether women's friendships are more intimate than men's are discussed.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1994

The relationship between indexes of childhood friendship and biographical, personality, and behavioral variables.

The nature of childhood friendship was investigated through the relationship between four proposed indexes of friendship (choice status, acceptance of others, acceptance by others, and perceived acceptance by others), and variables of biography, interpersonal skills and behaviors, and self-concept. The subjects were 39 children (30 boys, 9 girls) in Grades 2, 4, and 6. Data were collected via sociometric techniques, questionnaires, and the Piers-Harris (1969) Children's Self-Concept Scale. The results indicated significant correlations between (a) age and choice status, (b) after-school routine and perceived social acceptance, (c) after-school routine and actual social acceptance, and (d) loneliness and social acceptance; and between certain friendship indexes.

Child↗
PubMed1978

The interactional process in preadolescent friendships.

The study of friendship in children has long been a neglected area of human development. As Hartup (1975) pointed out, there is a paucity of data both with respect to the nature of the interactional process between friends and the language children use in conceptualizing friendship. The purpose of the present investigation was to examine the interactional process in preadolescent friendships within the framework of Harry Stack Sullivan's social development theory.

Child↗
PubMed2005

Impact of the mobile phone on junior high-school students' friendships in the Tokyo metropolitan area.

The proportion of having keitai (Japanese mobile phone) has increased rapidly in young children. To research how junior high school students use their own keitai and to examine the impact of using it on their psychology, especially on their friendship, we recruited 651 students, grade 8, from five public junior high schools in the Tokyo metropolitan area. Each student participant completed a questionnaire that we had created. The response rates were 88.8% (n = 578) for participants. The proportion of having their own keitai was 49.3% (n = 285) and that of not having it was 50.7% (n = 293). We found that they used it much more frequently for e-mail than as a phone. Most of them exchanged e-mails between schoolmates, and more than a half of them exchanged e-mails more than 10 times a day. Sociable students estimated that their own keitai was useful for their friendship. But they experienced some insecurity or started staying up late at night engaged in e-mail exchanges, and they thought that they could not live without their own keitai. Our findings suggest that keitai having an e-mail function play a big part in the junior high-school students' daily life, and its impact on students' friendships, psychology, or health should be discussed among students to prevent keitai addiction.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1996

The importance of friendship and family support in adaptation to chronic vision impairment.

The importance of friendship and family support in adaptation for 241 elders experiencing age-related vision loss was examined. Adaptation was operationalized with two global measures of psychological well-being (life satisfaction, depressive symptoms) and a domain-specific measure, adaptation to vision loss. Hierarchical regression analyses tested the effects of sociodemographic, vision, health, and functional disability variables in the first step, family support quality in the second step, and friendship support quality in the third step. Variables entered at each step contributed significant portions of explained variance in outcome variables. Thus, the importance of friendship support, independent of family support, in adaptation to chronic impairment was demonstrated. The effect of relationship type and gender on multiple support components was also assessed. Scores for family support were higher than those for friend support on almost all components. Close relationships were perceived as providing greater attachment in females and greater instrumental assistance and social integration in males.

Adaptation, Psychological↗