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PubMed2005

Ultrasonographic assessment and ultrasound-guided biopsy of the retropharyngeal lymph nodes in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus).

Endotheliotropic herpesvirus causes a fatal disease in young Asian elephants, but there are no methods for identifying latent carriers of the virus. During the postmortem study of one female African elephant and three male and two female Asian elephants, a lymph node located bilaterally caudoventral to the parotid gland, approximately 1.5 to 5 cm below the skin, was identified as suitable for transcutaneous ultrasound-guided biopsy. An ultrasonographic assessment and two biopsies were performed on 39 Asian elephants, and these lymph nodes were classified ultrasonographically as active, inactive or chronically active. The calculated mean (se) volume of 10 active lymph nodes was 17.4 (6.9) cm(3), and that of three chronically active lymph nodes was 10.6 (1.0) cm(3), whereas the mean volume of 17 inactive lymph nodes was 3.1 (0.6) cm(3). The presence of lymph node tissue in samples obtained by ultrasound-guided biopsy from three animals that were maintained under conditions that allowed for additional sampling was confirmed histologically. The dna extracted from the lymphoid tissue and the whole blood of all the elephants was negative for endotheliotropic herpesvirus by PCR.

Animals↗
PubMed1988

Anatomy of the reproductive tract of the female African elephant (Loxodonta africana) with reference to development of techniques for artificial breeding.

Complete reproductive tracts of 30 female African elephants (5-53 years), obtained during a population reduction procedure, were examined. The reproductive tracts were palpated in situ via the urogenital canal. A plastic speculum (1.3 X 170 cm) was introduced into the canal and dye was injected to simulate the procedure for artificial insemination. The lengths of reproductive tracts (from the vulva to the ovary) ranged from 120 to 358 cm. The length increased with the size and age of the animal. There was a membranous constriction (hymen) with an orifice, less than 2 cm in diameter, between the urogenital canal and the vagina, in 4 primigravid and in all 13 nulliparous elephants. The vaginal orifice of 13 multiparous elephants consisted of ragged folds of mucous membrane surrounding a single opening, 5-19 cm in diameter. The ages at first conception of 4 pregnant elephants with intact hymenal membranes were 10, 12, 13 and 14 years. The hymen was not penetrated as a result of intromission and therefore the site of ejaculation would have been in the urogenital canal of the 4 primigravid elephants.

Aging↗
PubMed2000

Serum oxytetracycline concentrations in African elephant (Loxodonta africana) calves after long-acting formulation injection.

Serum oxytetracycline pharmacokinetics were studied in 18 African elephant (Loxodonta africana) calves. Each elephant received separate injections of oxytetracycline at approximately 18 mg/kg i.m. and 8 mg/kg i.v. in a cross-over study. Blood samples were drawn at 0, 24, 48, 72, and 96 hr postinjection. An additional sample was drawn 110 hr before the animals were reinjected in the cross-over study and a final blood sample was drawn 48 hr after the second dose. No lameness or stiffness was observed following i.m. injections. Serum oxytetracycline concentrations >0.5 microg/ml were present 48 hr after initial dosing for all elephants (i.m., i.v., high or low dosage). Only elephants given the high i.m. dosage (18 mg/kg) maintained levels >0.5 microg/ml 72 hr postinjection. No significant difference in serum oxytetracycline concentration with time was observed between the groups given different i.v. dosages. These studies demonstrated that quantifiable serum oxytetracycline concentrations can be maintained in young African elephants with a low-dosage multidose i.m. regimen.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Oral bioavailability and pharmacokinetic characteristics of ketoprofen enantiomers after oral and intravenous administration in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus).

OBJECTIVE: To assess oral bioavailability (F) and pharmacokinetic characteristics of the R- and S-enantiomers of ketoprofen administered IV and orally to captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). ANIMALS: 5 adult Asian elephants. PROCEDURE: Elephants received single treatments of racemic ketoprofen at a dose of 2.2 mg/kg, administered IV and orally, in a complete crossover design. Blood samples were collected at intervals during the 24 hours following treatment. At least 4 weeks elapsed between drug administrations. Samples were analyzed for R- and S-ketoprofen with a validated liquid chromatography-mass spectroscopic assay. Pharmacokinetic parameters were determined by use of noncompartmental analysis. RESULTS: The enantiomers of ketoprofen were absorbed well after oral administration, with median F of 101% for R-ketoprofen and 85% for S-ketoprofen. Harmonic mean half-life ranged from 3.8 to 5.5 hours, depending on route of administration and enantiomer. The area under the concentration-time curve, mean residence time, apparent volume of distribution, plasma clearance, and maximum plasma concentration values were all significantly different between the 2 enantiomers for both routes of administration. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Ketoprofen has a long terminal half-life and complete absorption in this species. Based on the pharmacokinetic data, a dosage of ketoprofen of 1 mg/kg every 48 hours to 2 mg/kg every 24 hours, PO or IV, is recommended for use in Asian elephants, although the safety and efficacy of ketoprofen during long-term administration in elephants have not been determined.

Administration, Oral↗
PubMed2000

The measurement of glucocorticoid concentrations in the serum and faeces of captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana) after ACTH stimulation.

Conventionally, the assessment of adrenal responses to stress relies on blood sample collection. However, blood collection from animals is impossible without restraint or immobilisation that influences results. This study was undertaken to validate recently established enzyme immunoassays that measure faecal glucocorticoid metabolites in elephants, and to perform a preliminary investigation into the biological relevance of this non-invasive method for use in assessing the degree of stress in this species. Four juvenile African elephants were injected i.m. with 2.15 mg synthetic adrenocorticotrophic hormone (Synacthen, Novartis, Switzerland). Blood and faecal samples were collected over 4 h and 7 d respectively. Concentrations of serum cortisol and faecal cortisol metabolites were determined using immunoassay. Variability of basal and peak values in blood and faeces was observed among the elephants. After ACTH injection, serum cortisol concentrations increased by 400-700%. An 11-oxoaetiocholanolone enzyme immunoassay (EIA) proved best suited to measure cortisol metabolites (11,17-dioxoandrostanes) when compared to a cortisol and corticosterone EIA in faecal samples. Concentrations of faecal 11,17-dioxoandrostanes increased by 570-1070%, reaching peak levels after 20.0-25.5 h. Greater levels of glucocorticoid metabolites were measured in faecal samples from elephants kept in small enclosures compared to levels in the faeces of animals ranging over a larger area. The results of this preliminary study suggest that non-invasive faecal monitoring of glucocorticoid metabolites is useful in investigating adrenal activity in African elephants.

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone↗
PubMed1978

Some clinico-pathologic findings in elephants (Elephas maximus) infected with Fasciola jacksoni.

Severe submandibular and ventral abdominal oedema was observed in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in which liver flukes (Fasciola jacksoni) were recovered from the bile ducts at post-mortem examination. Clinico-pathologic examination of blood samples and serum from this elephant and another 8 elephants showed that most had anemia and hypoproteinemia. Fecal samples from 6 of the elephants contained from 6 to 83 eggs per gram. Treatment of elephants with nitroxynil (10 mg/kg) by subcutaneous injection produced severe local reactions at the injection site. Feces collected 2 and 4 months after treatment were free of trematode eggs. Hematologic values measured 4 months after treatment showed that the hemoglobin concentration, packed cell volume, erythrocyte count and plasma protein concentration had increased to within the normal range.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Clinical and pathological findings of a newly recognized disease of elephants caused by endotheliotropic herpesviruses.

The unique clinical and pathological findings in nine Asian (Elephas maximus) and two African (Loxodonta africana) elephants from North American Zoos with a highly fatal disease caused by novel endotheliotropic herpesviruses are described. Identification of the viruses by molecular techniques and some epidemiological aspects of the disease were previously reported. Consensus primer polymerase chain reaction (PCR) combined with sequencing yielded molecular evidence that confirmed the presence of two novel but related herpesviruses associated with the disease, one in Asian elephants and the second in African elephants. Disease onset was acute, with lethargy, edema of the head and thoracic limbs, oral ulceration and cyanosis of the tongue followed by death of most animals in 1 to 7 days. Pertinent laboratory findings in two of three clinically evaluated animals included lymphocytopenia and thrombocytopenia. Two affected young Asian elephants recovered after a 3 to 4 wk course of therapy with the anti-herpesvirus drug famciclovir. Necropsy findings in the fatal cases included pericardial effusion and extensive petechial hemorrhages in the heart and throughout the peritoneal cavity, hepatomegaly, cyanosis of the tongue, intestinal hemorrhage, and ulceration. Histologically, there were extensive microhemorrhages and edema throughout the myocardium and mild, subacute myocarditis. Similar hemorrhagic lesions with inflammation were evident in the tongue, liver, and large intestine. Lesions in these target organs were accompanied by amphophilic to basophilic intranuclear viral inclusion bodies in capillary endothelial cells. Transmission electron microscopy of the endothelial inclusion bodies revealed 80 to 92 nm diameter viral capsids consistent with herpesvirus morphology. The short course of the herpesvirus infections, with sudden deaths in all but the two surviving elephants, was ascribed to acute cardiac failure attributed to herpesvirus-induced capillary injury with extensive myocardial hemorrhage and edema.

2-Aminopurine↗
PubMed2005

The fluidity of blood in African elephants (Loxodonta africana).

The large cellular volume of erythrocytes and the increased plasma concentration of proteins in elephants are factors which potentially affect blood rheology adversely. To verify blood rheology, routine hemorheologic variables were analyzed in four African elephants (Loxodonta africana), housed in the zoo of Vienna. Whole blood viscosity at three different shear rates (WBV at low shear rate: WBV 0.7 s(-1) and WBV 2.4 s(-1); WBV at high shear rate: WBV 94 s(-1) done by LS30, Contraves) and erythrocyte aggregation (aggregation indices AI by LS30; aggregation indices M0, M1 by Myrenne aggregometer) were high (WBV 94 s(-1): 5.368 (5.246/5.648); WBV 2.4 s(-1): 16.291 (15.605/17.629); WBV 0.7 s(-1): 28.28 (25.537/32.173) mPa s; AI 2.4 s(-1): 0.25 (0.23/0.30); AI 0.7 s(-1): 0.24 (0.23/0.28); M0: 7.8 (6.4/8.4); M1: 30.2 (25/31)). Plasma viscosity (PV) was increased as well (1.865 (1.857/1.912) mPa s) compared to other mammalian species. These parameters would indicate a decrease in blood fluidity in elephants. However, erythrocyte rigidity (LORCA, Mechatronics) was decreased, which in contrast, has a promotive effect on peripheral perfusion. Blood rheology of the elephants was determined by a high whole blood and plasma viscosity as the result of pronounced erythrocyte aggregation and high plasma protein concentration. Thus, in the terminal vessels the resistance to flow will be increased. The large erythrocytes, which might impede blood flow further due to geometrical reasons, however, had a pronounced flexibility. We conclude that the effect of the increased inner resistance to peripheral blood flow was counteracted by the decreased rigidity of the erythrocytes to enable an adequate blood flow in African elephants.

Animals↗
PubMed1986

Serum concentrations of etorphine in juvenile African elephants.

Eleven juvenile African elephants were given etorphine hydrochloride (2.19 +/- 0.11 micrograms/kg of body weight; mean +/- SD) as a single IM injection; 3 elephants were given additional etorphine (0.42 +/- 0.09 micrograms/kg) IV. After immobilization, each elephant was maintained in lateral recumbency by administration of a 0.5% halothane/oxygen mixture or by administration of multiple IV injections of etorphine. At postinjection hours 0.25 and 0.5 and at 30-minute intervals thereafter, blood samples were collected via an auricular artery, and serum concentrations of etorphine were determined by use of radioimmunoassay. The highest mean serum concentration of etorphine in 6 elephants given a single IM injection and subsequently maintained on halothane and oxygen was 1.62 +/- 0.97 ng/ml at postinjection hours 0.5; thereafter, the mean serum concentration decreased steadily. In 4 elephants maintained in lateral recumbency with multiple IV administrations of etorphine, a correlation was not found between the time to develop initial signs of arousal and serum concentrations of etorphine before arousal. After administration of the initial immobilizing dose of etorphine, the interval between successive IV administrations of etorphine decreased.

Animals↗
PubMed1982

Hearing in the elephant (Elephas maximus): absolute sensitivity, frequency discrimination, and sound localization.

A young Indian elephant was tested to determine its absolute sensitivity, frequency-discrimination thresholds, and sound-localization thresholds. The elephant was found to have an audibility curve similar to that of other mammals but one that is more sensitive to low frequencies and less sensitive to high frequencies than any other mammalian audiogram including human's. The elephant's sensitivity to frequency differences at low frequencies was found to equal that of humans. Finally, the elephant was found to be very accurate at localizing sounds in the azimuthal plane, with thresholds around 1 degree for broad-band noise. The elephant's ability to localize pure tones suggested that it could use both binaural time- and intensity-difference cues to localize sound.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Cardiopulmonary effects of three prolonged periods of isoflurane anesthesia in an adult elephant.

An adult 3,500-kg female African elephant was anesthetized 3 times for treatment of subcutaneous fistulas over the lateral aspect of each cubitus (anesthesia 1 and 2) and for repair of a fractured tusk (anesthesia 3). Lateral recumbency and anesthesia were achieved with etorphine (anesthesia 1 and 2) or etorphine and azaperone (anesthesia 3). The elephant's trachea was intubated and anesthesia was maintained by use of isoflurane and oxygen delivered via 2 standard large animal anesthesia machines joined in parallel. The range of total recumbency time was 2.4 to 3.3 hours. Breathing and heart rates, systemic arterial pressure, rectal temperature, PaO2, pH, and end-tidal gases were monitored. After administration of etorphine, measurements were made while the air-breathing elephant was recumbent, then every 5 minutes (cardiovascular) or 15 minutes (blood gases) after commencement of administration of isoflurane and oxygen. Tachycardia and hypertension were detected after administration of etorphine, but heart rate and systemic arterial pressure decreased to within normal ranges after administration of isoflurane and oxygen. The elephant remained well oxygenated while anesthetized and breathing a high oxygen mixture. The elephant had an uneventful recovery from each anesthesia.

Anesthesia↗
PubMed1996

Observations on Barclay's elephant.

This account attempts to trace the fate of the skeleton of an elephant that was gifted by George Ballingall to Dr John Barclay, one of the most important teachers of Anatomy in Edinburgh during the early 19th century. In his will, Barclay gifted his human and comparative anatomy collections, including the elephant, to the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh on two conditions, that a hall should be built to house the collection, and that it should be associated with his name in perpetuity. In the 1830s, the comparative collection, but particularly the skeleton of the elephant, was the pride of the College. Unfortunately, interest in the comparative material rapidly diminished, and, due to constraints on space, while the elephant's skull was retained the rest of the skeleton was disposed of. An unpublished poem written at the time of the Burke trial, in 1829, testifies to the fact that Barclay's elephant was closely associated in the minds of the public with the activities of Dr Robert Knox, the then Conservator of the College museum.

Anatomy, Comparative↗
PubMed1999

Signal-receiver interplay in the communication of male condition by Asian elephants.

Signal design and meaning are dependent on the condition of the sender and receiver as well as the response of the receiver. This study examined (1) whether female Asian elephants, Elephas maximus, can distinguish between a conspecific male in musth and nonmusth states using urinary signals, (2) how the oestrous condition of the female affects discrimination, and (3) correlation of female responses with the testosterone level of the male. Musth is a rut-like state displayed by healthy adult male elephants. Males in musth dominate nonmusth males and may be preferred by females as mates. Urine was collected from two captive male Asian elephants during nonmusth periods and from one of these males during times of musth. Samples of musth and nonmusth urine and control liquids were placed in an elephant enclosure weekly for 16 weeks, the length of a female oestrous cycle. Primary response behaviours were approach and four trunk-tip motions, namely sniff, check, place and flehmen. Musth urine consistently elicited greater responses than nonmusth and control samples. Females were more responsive during their follicular (sexually receptive) than luteal (unreceptive) stages of oestrus. Furthermore, females appeared to be sensitive to the degree of musth as responses increased with rising serum testosterone levels of the male donor. Chemical signals from males are a likely source of honest signals related to status and reproductive condition. Female elephants appear capable of detecting differences in a male based upon urinary chemosignals. Copyright 1999 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1995

'The Elephant Man' as 'self' and 'other': the psycho-social costs of a misdiagnosis.

'The Elephant Man's Disease' acquired enormous notoriety through the portrayals of the life of Joseph Merrick, 'The Elephant Man', on American stage, screen and television. These portrayals, inspired by Ashley Montagu's book, The Elephant Man (1971) parleyed the designation of Merrick's condition into a household phrase, a metaphor for the grimmest extreme of ugliness. This paper explores the impact of 'The Elephant Man' as the chief referent and role model for persons who believed they shared the condition of neurofibromatosis 1, a neurological genetic disorder, which was erroneously believed at the time his story was popularized to have affected Joseph Merrick. Data were gathered through interviews with sixty affected individuals and families about their responses to the media representations of 'The Elephant Man'. Informants were recruited from three NF Support Groups and two urban hospital caseloads in Northern California.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed1997

Extension of the "elephant trunk" technique in complex aortic pathology: the "bidirectional" option.

BACKGROUND: The "elephant trunk" technique, using a free-floating vascular prosthesis, was originally described to facilitate a subsequent operation on the downstream aorta. We developed an additional refinement of this technique, called the "bidirectional elephant trunk." This option may represent an interesting tool in more complex aortic operations, especially when the descending aorta has to be replaced first in patients with concomitant pathology of the ascending aorta or of the aortic arch. METHODS: The initial operation is performed through a left thoracotomy. The proximal elephant trunk is created by invaginating the future aortic arch graft into the descending aortic graft. The proximal anastomosis between the doubled graft and the proximal descending aorta is performed first. During construction of the distal anastomosis, a distal elephant trunk may be inserted likewise. If the aortic arch and ascending aorta have to be replaced later, this second step is performed through a median sternotomy. The free-floating arch graft is pulled out of the proximal descending aorta with a nerve hook, unfolded, and used for total arch replacement. RESULTS: This technique was used successfully in 3 patients without mortality. No major complications were observed excepted persistent hoarseness in a patient with preoperative paresis of the recurrent nerve. No perfusion problems due to the unfolding of the free-floating graft occurred during the second operation. CONCLUSIONS: The bidirectional elephant trunk technique is an interesting option that may be suitable for patients presenting with a complex pathology of the whole thoracic aorta when the descending segment has to be replaced first.

Anastomosis, Surgical↗
PubMed2001

Northern elephant seal platelets: analysis of shape change and response to platelet agonists.

Blood platelets have a vital role in the maintenance of normal mammalian hemostasis. Rapid pressure changes and temperatures lower than 20 degrees C cause activation of human and terrestrial mammal platelets. Elephant seals are routinely subjected to pressures as high as 150 atm, yet do not suffer from the thrombotic effects of platelet activation associated with rapid decompression. We examined the ultrastructure of Northern elephant seal (Mirounga angustirostris) platelets and their functional and morphological response to various platelet agonists. Unstimulated elephant seal platelets are discoid cells, with a microtubule coil, randomly dispersed alpha and dense granules, and glycogen granules. There are well-defined areas of membranous invaginations that indicate the presence of an open canalicular system (OCS). Aggregometry was used to determine the response of elephant seal platelets to various platelet agonists. Dose-dependent curves were generated for thrombin, collagen, and adenosine diphosphate (ADP). Platelet response to thrombin was dose-dependent and was maximal at 2.5 U/ml. Platelets collected in sodium citrate had blunted responses to both ADP and collagen. ADP stimulation caused only reversible, primary activation (shape change) at > or = 5 microM, while platelets did not aggregate in response to any concentration of collagen. Platelets collected in sodium heparin did respond fully to both to ADP and collagen. There was small, reversible shape change in response to ristocetin, but no response to epinephrine. Decreased sensitivity of elephant seal platelets to agonists may be a protective mechanism developed in response to rapid pressure changes and cold temperatures associated with adaptation to an extreme environment.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Elephant seal genetic variation and the use of simulation models to investigate historical population bottlenecks.

Because the northern elephant seal (Mirounga angustirostrus) was heavily exploited during the 19th century, it experienced an extreme population bottleneck. Since then, under legislative protection in the United States and Mexico, northern elephant seals have recovered dramatically in number, although their genomic diversity was greatly reduced, apparently as a consequence of the bottleneck. In this study we investigated DNA sequence diversity in two mtDNA regions (the control region and 16S RNA) and found low genetic variation in the northern elephant seal: there were only two control region haplotypes (sequence difference = 1%), which was consistent with an extreme founder event in the recent history of the northern species. We also reaffirmed the lack of allozyme diversity in this species. In contrast, the southern elephant seal (M. leonina), which though similarly exploited never fell below 1,000 animals, had 23 control region mtDNA haplotypes (average sequence difference = 2.3%). To investigate the extent of the founder event in the northern elephant seal we devised a simulation model based on extensive demographic data. This allowed a statistical analysis of the likely outcome of bottlenecks of different size and duration. Given these historical data, our results indicate (within 95% confidence) a bottleneck of less than 30 seals and 20-year duration, or, if hunting was the primary pressure on the population, a single-year bottleneck of less than 20 seals.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

The management of Elephant's Ear poisoning.

The Araceae family of plants is the major cause of symptomatic plant ingestions in some developed countries (Dieffenbachia and Philodendron) and in Zimbabwe (Elephant's Ear), especially in children. A retrospective case series was carried out to evaluate the management of poisoning due to Elephant's Ear at the largest referral hospital in Zimbabwe for the period January 1995-December 1999. The study revealed inappropriate use of antibiotics, atropine, and antihistamines in the treatment of Elephant's Ear poisoning. This article also reviews the management of poisoning due to the Araceae family of plants as exemplified by Elephant's Ear. There is a need to educate health care workers on the clinical management of Elephant's Ear poisoning especially in developing countries where there are limited resources.

Adolescent↗