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PubMed2000

Effects of environmental change on emerging parasitic diseases.

Ecological disturbances exert an influence on the emergence and proliferation of malaria and zoonotic parasitic diseases, including, Leishmaniasis, cryptosporidiosis, giardiasis, trypanosomiasis, schistosomiasis, filariasis, onchocerciasis, and loiasis. Each environmental change, whether occurring as a natural phenomenon or through human intervention, changes the ecological balance and context within which disease hosts or vectors and parasites breed, develop, and transmit disease. Each species occupies a particular ecological niche and vector species sub-populations are distinct behaviourally and genetically as they adapt to man-made environments. Most zoonotic parasites display three distinct life cycles: sylvatic, zoonotic, and anthroponotic. In adapting to changed environmental conditions, including reduced non-human population and increased human population, some vectors display conversion from a primarily zoophyllic to primarily anthrophyllic orientation. Deforestation and ensuing changes in landuse, human settlement, commercial development, road construction, water control systems (dams, canals, irrigation systems, reservoirs), and climate, singly, and in combination have been accompanied by global increases in morbidity and mortality from emergent parasitic disease. The replacement of forests with crop farming, ranching, and raising small animals can create supportive habitats for parasites and their host vectors. When the land use of deforested areas changes, the pattern of human settlement is altered and habitat fragmentation may provide opportunities for exchange and transmission of parasites to the heretofore uninfected humans. Construction of water control projects can lead to shifts in such vector populations as snails and mosquitoes and their parasites. Construction of roads in previously inaccessible forested areas can lead to erosion, and stagnant ponds by blocking the flow of streams when the water rises during the rainy season. The combined effects of environmentally detrimental changes in local land use and alterations in global climate disrupt the natural ecosystem and can increase the risk of transmission of parasitic diseases to the human population.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Mercury fluxes in a natural forested Amazonian catchment (Serra do Navio, Amapá State, Brazil).

Mercury (Hg total) fluxes were calculated for rainwater, throughfall and stream water in a small catchment located in the northeastern region of the Brazilian Amazon (Serra do Navio, Amapá State), whose upper part is covered by a natural rainforest and lower part was altered due to deforestation and activities related to manganese mining. The catchment area is 200 km from the nearest gold mining (garimpo). Minimum and maximum Hg concentrations were measured monthly from October 1996 to September 1997 and were 3.5-23.4 ng l(-1) for rainwater, 16.5-82.7 ng l(-1) for throughfall (March-August 1997) and 1.2-6.1 and 4.2-18.8 ng l(-1) for stream water, in natural and disturbed areas, respectively. In the natural area, the inputs were 18.2 microg m 2 year(-1) in rainwater and 72 microg m(-2) year(-1) in throughfall. This enrichment was attributed to dry deposition. The stream output of 2.9 microg m(-2) year(-1) indicates that Hg is being recycled within the forest as other chemical species or is being retained by the soil system, as confirmed by the cumulative Hg burden in the 0-10 cm surface layer, which was 36480 microg m(-2). When the disturbed area of the catchment was included, the stream output was 9.3 microg m(-2), clearly indicating the impact of the deforestation of the lower part of the basin on the release of mercury. The Hg burden in the disturbed area was 7560 microg m(-2) for the 0-10 cm surface layer.

Brazil↗
PubMed2002

Behavior of selected micro and trace elements and organic matter in sediments of a freshwater system in south-east Brazil.

The Cima Lake (CL) is a freshwater system located in the Northern Region of Rio de Janeiro State. It has a history of agricultural and cattle raising activities. The original Atlantic forest has been deforested and replaced by pasture and sugar cane crops. The objectives of this study were to understand the vertical distribution of organic matter and heavy metals associated with lacustrine sediments and to evaluate the influence of land use on the relative contribution of organic matter sources and heavy metals to the lake sediments. For these purposes, sediment cores were collected at three stations: inlet, center and outlet of the CL. It was possible to date sediments buried over the last 150 years. The results revealed that the changes caused by human intervention in the CL watershed influenced sediment sources and composition, and led to increasing sedimentation rates over the past century. The (C/N)a ratios ranged between 5.7 and 47.4 and showed that between the 1950s and 1960s there was an alteration in the sources of organic matter to CL sediments, indicating a period marked by the expansion of sugar-cane and alcohol industries in the region and an intense deforestation in the lake watershed. The heavy metal concentrations obtained in this study were similar to those described for natural systems, in spite of the system being influenced by anthropogenic sources. The Me+/Ti ratios indicate the existence of human intervention processes in the lake, showing that the origin of metals is not only from natural processes.

Brazil↗
PubMed2003

Adoption of biomass improved cookstoves in a patriarchal society: an example from Sudan.

The economic, social, ecological and environmental roles and benefits of forests are obvious and need no emphasis. Inefficient use of fuel wood is considered one of the important causes of deforestation. Use of more efficient improved cookstoves is proposed as one of the measures that can reduce demand for fuel wood and charcoal and help in lowering the annoying deforestation rate in many developing countries. During the 1980s and 1990s several programs aiming at testing and disseminating energy saving technologies were implemented in Sudan. One of these technologies was improved cookstoves, which was intended to increase the efficiency of using energy from biomass sources. This study is carried out to examine the adoption rate and the factors affecting adoption of improved cookstoves in Khartoum State. The study is based on primary data collected through personal interviews with husbands and wives in 300 randomly selected households. Regression analysis was used to analyze the data. The results showed that the device's adoption rate was very low. The improved cookstove's relative advantage, housewife's exposure to messages about improved cookstoves, educational level of the housewife and the average educational level of the female household's members had significant positive effect on the household's innovativeness regarding adoption of improved cookstove. Wife's age and the educational level of the husband had negative significant effects. In the Sudanese patriarchal society all the household domestic tasks, particularly food preparation and related activities, are considered women's responsibilities and all the decisions related to them are taken by women. Therefore, these results could be understood as a reflection of the division of labor, gender relations and decision-making process in the Sudanese household.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

New analytical method for the determination of levoglucosan, polyhydroxy compounds, and 2-methylerythritol and its application to smoke and rainwater samples.

Biomass burning is an important source of smoke aerosol particles, which contain water-soluble inorganic and organic species, and thus have a great potential of affecting cloud formation, precipitation, and climate on global and regional scales. In this study, we have developed a new chromatographic method for the determination of levoglucosan (a specific tracer for biomass burning particles), related polyhydroxy compounds, and 2-methylerythritol (recently identified as isoprene oxidation product in fine aerosols in the Amazon) in smoke and in rainwater samples. The new method is based on water extraction and utilizes ion-exclusion high-performance liquid chromatography (IEC-HPLC) separation and spectroscopic detection at 194 nm. The new method allows the analysis of wet samples, such as rainwater samples. In addition, aliquots of the same extracts can be used for further analyses, such as ion chromatography. The overall method uncertainty for sample analysis is 15%. The method was applied to the analysis of high-volume and size-segregated smoke samples and to rainwater samples, all collected during and following the deforestation fires season in Rondonia, Brazil. From the analysis of size-segregated samples, it is evident that levoglucosan is a primary vegetation combustion product, emitted mostly in the 0.175-1 microm size bins. Levoglucosan concentrations decrease below the detection limit atthe end of the deforestation fires period, implying that it is not present in significant amounts in background Amazon forest aerosols. The ratio of daytime levoglucosan concentration to particulate matter (PM) concentration was about half the nighttime ratio. This observation is rationalized by the prevalence of flaming combustion during day as opposed to smoldering combustion during night. This work broadens the speciation possibilities

Aerosols↗
PubMed2006

Modelling conservation in the Amazon basin.

Expansion of the cattle and soy industries in the Amazon basin has increased deforestation rates and will soon push all-weather highways into the region's core. In the face of this growing pressure, a comprehensive conservation strategy for the Amazon basin should protect its watersheds, the full range of species and ecosystem diversity, and the stability of regional climates. Here we report that protected areas in the Amazon basin--the central feature of prevailing conservation approaches--are an important but insufficient component of this strategy, based on policy-sensitive simulations of future deforestation. By 2050, current trends in agricultural expansion will eliminate a total of 40% of Amazon forests, including at least two-thirds of the forest cover of six major watersheds and 12 ecoregions, releasing 32 +/- 8 Pg of carbon to the atmosphere. One-quarter of the 382 mammalian species examined will lose more than 40% of the forest within their Amazon ranges. Although an expanded and enforced network of protected areas could avoid as much as one-third of this projected forest loss, conservation on private lands is also essential. Expanding market pressures for sound land management and prevention of forest clearing on lands unsuitable for agriculture are critical ingredients of a strategy for comprehensive conservation.

Agriculture↗
PubMed1999

Population structure delineated with microsatellite markers in fragmented populations of a tropical tree, carapa guianensis (Meliaceae)

Deforestation and selective logging in the tropics may have serious consequences on genetic processes in tropical tree populations, affecting long-term survival of a given species as well as tropical forest communities. Because understanding the effects of human-induced changes on genetic processes is of utmost importance in formulating sound conservation and management plans for tropical forest communities, we developed microsatellite or simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers for the tropical tree Carapa guianensis (Meliaceae) and assessed the polymorphism of SSRs in adult and sapling populations in a large contiguous forest and in selectively logged and fragmented forests. The number of alleles in polymorphic loci ranged between 4 and 28. No inbreeding was detected in saplings or adult cohorts, but the allelic richness was lower in the sapling cohort of the isolated fragment. Genetic distances, Nei's D and (delta&mgr;)2, and RST values among saplings were greater than among adult cohorts, suggesting restriction of gene flow due to deforestation and habitat fragmentation. These SSR loci may be used to address many related questions regarding the population and conservation genetics of tropical trees.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2001

The impact of habitat fragmentation on dispersal of Cunningham's skink (Egernia cunninghami): evidence from allelic and genotypic analyses of microsatellites.

The effects of habitat fragmentation on processes within and among populations are important for conservation management. Despite a broad spectrum of lifestyles and the conservation significance of many reptiles, very little work on fine-scale population genetics has been carried out on this group. This study examines the dispersal patterns of a rock crevice-dwelling lizard, Cunningham's skink (Egernia cunninghami), in a naturally vegetated reserve and an adjacent deforested site. Both genotypic and genic approaches were employed, using microsatellite loci. The spatial organization of individuals with respect to pairwise relatedness coefficients and allele frequencies, along with assignment tests, were used to infer dispersal characteristics for both sexes in a natural and a cleared area. The distribution of relatedness in both habitats was spatially structured, with E. cunninghami showing high pairwise relatedness within their rocky retreat sites. Analysis of relatedness over different spatial scales, spatial autocorrelation of alleles and assignment tests, all indicated that both sexes in the cleared area show less dispersal than their counterparts in the reserve. Furthermore, deforestation may inhibit female dispersal to a greater extent than that of males. The geographical structuring of allele frequencies for adults in the cleared area, but not the reserve, indicates that habitat fragmentation has the potential to alter at least the microevolution of E. cunninghami populations.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Inbreeding avoidance in cunningham's skinks (Egernia cunninghami) in natural and fragmented habitat.

Habitat fragmentation/alteration has been proposed as a distinct process threatening the viability of populations of many organisms. One expression of its impact may be the disruption of core population processes such as inbreeding avoidance. Using the experimental design outlined in our companion paper, we report on the impact of habitat alteration (deforestation) on inbreeding in the rock-dwelling Australian lizard Egernia cunninghami. Ten microsatellite loci were used to calculate relatedness coefficients of potential and actual breeding pairs, and to examine mate-choice and heterozygosity. Despite significantly less dispersal and higher within-group relatedness between potential mates in deforested than in natural habitats, this did not result in significantly more inbred matings. Average relatedness amongst breeding pairs was low, with no significant difference between natural and fragmented populations in relatedness between breeding pairs, or individual heterozygosity. Active avoidance of close kin as mates was indicated by the substantially and significantly lower relatedness in actual breeding pairs than potential ones. These facts, and heterozygote excesses in all groups of immature lizards from both habitats, show that E. cunninghami maintained outbreeding in the face of increased accumulation of relatives.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Disappearance of insectivorous birds from tropical forest fragments.

Determining the impact of forest disturbance and fragmentation on tropical biotas is a central goal of conservation biology. Among tropical forest birds, understory insectivores are particularly sensitive to habitat disturbance and fragmentation, despite their relatively small sizes and freedom from hunting pressure. Why these birds are especially vulnerable to fragmentation is not known. Our data indicate that the best determinant of the persistence of understory insectivorous birds in small fragments is the ability to disperse through deforested countryside habitats. This finding contradicts our initial hypothesis that the decline of insectivorous birds in forest fragments is caused by impoverished invertebrate prey base in fragments. Although we observed significantly fewer insectivorous birds in smaller fragments, extensive sampling of invertebrate communities (106,082 individuals) and avian diets (of 735 birds) revealed no important differences between large and small fragments. Neither habitat specificity nor drier fragment microclimates seemed critical. Bird species that were less affected by forest fragmentation were, in general, those that used the deforested countryside more, and we suggest that the key to their conservation will be found there.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Returning forests analyzed with the forest identity.

Amid widespread reports of deforestation, some nations have nevertheless experienced transitions from deforestation to reforestation. In a causal relationship, the Forest Identity relates the carbon sequestered in forests to the changing variables of national or regional forest area, growing stock density per area, biomass per growing stock volume, and carbon concentration in the biomass. It quantifies the sources of change of a nation's forests. The Identity also logically relates the quantitative impact on forest expanse of shifting timber harvest to regions and plantations where density grows faster. Among 50 nations with extensive forests reported in the Food and Agriculture Organization's comprehensive Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005, no nation where annual per capita gross domestic product exceeded 4,600 dollars had a negative rate of growing stock change. Using the Forest Identity and national data from the Assessment report, a single synoptic chart arrays the 50 nations with coordinates of the rates of change of basic variables, reveals both clusters of nations and outliers, and suggests trends in returning forests and their attributes. The Forest Identity also could serve as a tool for setting forest goals and illuminating how national policies accelerate or retard the forest transitions that are diffusing among nations.

Americas↗
PubMed2004

High nuclear genetic diversity, high levels of outcrossing and low differentiation among remnant populations of Quercus petraea at the margin of its range in Ireland.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Quercus petraea colonized Ireland after the last glaciation from refugia on mainland Europe. Deforestation, however, beginning in Neolithic times, has resulted in small, scattered forest fragments, now covering less than 12,000 ha. METHODS: Plastid (three fragments) and microsatellite variation (13 loci) were characterized in seven Irish populations sampled along a north-south gradient. Using Bayesian approaches and Wright's F-statistics, the effects of colonization and fragmentation on the genetic structure and mating patterns of extant oak populations were investigated. KEY RESULTS: All populations possessed cytotypes common to the Iberian Peninsula. Despite the distance from the refugial core and the extensive deforestation in Ireland, nuclear genetic variation was high and comparable to mainland Europe. Low population differentiation was observed within Ireland and populations showed no evidence for isolation by distance. As expected of a marker with an effective population size of one-quarter relative to the nuclear genome, plastid variation indicated higher differentiation. Individual inbreeding coefficients indicated high levels of outcrossing. CONCLUSIONS: Consistent with a large effective population size in the historical migrant gene pool and/or with high gene flow among populations, high within-population diversity and low population differentiation was observed within Ireland. It is proposed that native Q. petraea populations in Ireland share a common phylogeographic history and that the present genetic structure does not reflect founder effects.

Gene Frequency↗
PubMed2006

Coincident scales of forest feedback on climate and conservation in a diversity hot spot.

The dynamic relationship between vegetation and climate is now widely acknowledged. Climate influences the distribution of vegetation; and through a number of feedback mechanisms vegetation affects climate. This implies that land-use changes such as deforestation will have climatic consequences. However, the spatial scales at which such feedbacks occur remain largely unknown. Here, we use a large database of precipitation and tree cover records for an area of the biodiversity-rich Atlantic forest region in south eastern Brazil to investigate the forest-rainfall feedback at a range of spatial scales from ca 10(1)-10(4) km2. We show that the strength of the feedback increases up to scales of at least 10(3) km2, with the climate at a particular locality influenced by the pattern of landcover extending over a large area. Thus, smaller forest fragments, even if well protected, may suffer degradation due to the climate responding to land-use change in the surrounding area. Atlantic forest vertebrate taxa also require large areas of forest to support viable populations. Areas of forest of ca 10(3) km2 would be large enough to support such populations at the same time as minimizing the risk of climatic feedbacks resulting from deforestation.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Protecting terrestrial ecosystems and the climate through a global carbon market.

Protecting terrestrial ecosystems through international environmental laws requires the development of economic mechanisms that value the Earth's natural systems. The major international treaties to address ecosystem protection lack meaningful binding obligations and the requisite financial instruments to affect large-scale conservation. The Kyoto Protocol's emissions-trading framework creates economic incentives for nations to reduce greenhouse-gas (GHG) emissions cost effectively. Incorporating GHG impacts from land-use activities into this system would create a market for an important ecosystem service provided by forests and agricultural lands: sequestration of atmospheric carbon. This would spur conservation efforts while reducing the 20% of anthropogenic CO(2) emissions produced by land-use change, particularly tropical deforestation. The Kyoto negotiations surrounding land-use activities have been hampered by a lack of robust carbon inventory data. Moreover, the Protocol's provisions agreed to in Kyoto made it difficult to incorporate carbon-sequestering land-use activities into the emissions-trading framework without undermining the atmospheric GHG reductions contemplated in the treaty. Subsequent negotiations since 1997 failed to produce a crediting system that provides meaningful incentives for enhanced carbon sequestration. Notably, credit for reducing rates of tropical deforestation was explicitly excluded from the Protocol. Ultimately, an effective GHG emissions-trading framework will require full carbon accounting for all emissions and sequestration from terrestrial ecosystems. Improved inventory systems and capacity building for developing nations will, therefore, be necessary.

Air Pollution↗
PubMed2002

Designing a carbon market that protects forests in developing countries.

Firmly incorporated into the Kyoto Protocol, market mechanisms offer an innovative and cost-effective means of controlling atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases. However, as with markets for many other goods and services, a carbon market may generate negative environmental externalities. Possible interpretations and application of Kyoto provisions under COP-6bis and COP-7 raise concerns that rules governing forestry with respect to the Kyoto carbon market may increase pressure on native forests and their biodiversity in developing countries. In this paper, we assess the following two specific concerns with Kyoto provisions for forestry measures. First, whether, under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), by restricting allowable forestry measures to afforestation and reforestation, and explicitly excluding protection of threatened native forests, the Kyoto Protocol will enhance incentives for degradation and clearing of forests in developing countries; second, whether carbon crediting for forest management in Annex I (industrialized) regions under Article 3.4 creates a dynamic that can encourage displacement of timber harvests from Annex I countries to developing nations. Given current timber extraction patterns in developing regions, additional harvest pressure would certainly entail a considerable cost in terms of biodiversity loss. In both cases, we find that the concerns about deleterious impacts to forests and biodiversity are justified, although the scale of such impacts is difficult to predict. Both to ensure reliable progress in managing carbon concentrations and to avoid unintended consequences with respect to forest biodiversity, the further development of the Kyoto carbon market must explicitly correct these perverse incentives. We recommend several steps that climate policymakers can take to ensure that conservation and restoration of biodiversity-rich natural forests in developing countries are rewarded rather than penalized. To correct incentives to clear natural forests through CDM crediting for afforestation and reforestation, we recommend for the first commitment period that policymakers establish an early base year, such as 1990, such that lands cleared after that year would be ineligible for crediting. We further recommend an exception to this rule for CDM projects that are explicitly designed to promote natural forest restoration and that pass rigorous environmental impact review. Restoration efforts are typically most effective on lands that are adjacent to standing forests and hence likely to have been recently cleared. Thus, we recommend for these projects establishing a more recent base year, such as 2000. For the second and subsequent commitment periods, we recommend that climate policymakers act to restrain inter-annex leakage and its impacts by ensuring that crediting for forest management in industrialized countries is informed by modelling efforts to anticipate the scale of leakage associated with different Annex I 'Land use, land-use change and forestry' policy options, and coupled with effective measures to protect natural forests in developing countries. The latter should include expanding the options permitted under the CDM to carbon crediting for projects that protect threatened forests from deforestation and forest degradation. Ultimately, carbon market incentives for forest clearing can be reduced and incentives for forest conservation most effectively strengthened by fully capturing carbon emissions associated with deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries under a future emissions cap. Finally, we note that these recommendations have broader relevance to any forest-based measures to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions developed outside of the specific context of the Kyoto Protocol.

Air Pollution↗
PubMed2006

Tropical forests and the changing earth system.

Tropical forests are global epicentres of biodiversity and important modulators of the rate of climate change. Recent research on deforestation rates and ecological changes within intact forests, both areas of recent research and debate, are reviewed, and the implications for biodiversity (species loss) and climate change (via the global carbon cycle) addressed. Recent impacts have most likely been: (i) a large source of carbon to the atmosphere, and major loss of species, from deforestation and (ii) a large carbon sink within remaining intact forest, accompanied by accelerating forest dynamism and widespread biodiversity changes. Finally, I look to the future, suggesting that the current carbon sink in intact forests is unlikely to continue, and that the tropical forest biome may even become a large net source of carbon, via one or more of four plausible routes: changing photosynthesis and respiration rates, biodiversity changes in intact forest, widespread forest collapse via drought, and widespread forest collapse via fire. Each of these scenarios risks potentially dangerous positive feedbacks with the climate system that could dramatically accelerate and intensify climate change. Given that continued land-use change alone is already thought to be causing the sixth mass extinction event in Earth's history, should such feedbacks occur, the resulting biodiversity and societal consequences would be even more severe.

Biodiversity↗
PubMed2002

Anthropogenic effects on forest ecosystems at various spatio-temporal scales.

The focus in this review of long-term effects on forest ecosystems is on human impact. As a classification of this differentiated and complex matter, three domains of long-term effects with different scales in space and time are distinguished: Exploitation and conversion history of forests in areas of extended human settlement, Long-range air pollution and acid deposition in industrialized regions, Current global loss of forests and soil degradation. There is an evident link between the first and the third point in the list. Cultivation of primary forestland--with its tremendous effects on land cover--took place in Europe many centuries ago and continued for centuries. Deforestation today is a phenomenon predominantly observed in the developing countries, yet it threatens biotic and soil resources on a global scale. Acidification of forest soils caused by long-range air pollution from anthropogenic emission sources is a regional to continental problem in industrialized parts of the world. As a result of emission reduction legislation, atmospheric acid deposition is currently on the retreat in the richer industrialized regions (e.g., Europe, U.S., Japan); however, because many other regions of the world are at present rapidly developing their polluting industries (e.g., China and India), "acid rain" will most probably remain a serious ecological problem on regional scales. It is believed to have caused considerable destabilization of forest ecosystems, adding to the strong structural and biogeochemical impacts resulting from exploitation history. Deforestation and soil degradation cause the most pressing ecological problems for the time being, at least on the global scale. In many of those regions where loss of forests and soils is now high, it may be extremely difficult or impossible to restore forest ecosystems and soil productivity. Moreover, the driving forces, which are predominantly of a demographic and socioeconomic nature, do not yet seem to be lessening in strength. It can only be hoped that a wise policy of international cooperation and shared aims can cope with this problem in the future.

Acid Rain↗
PubMed2006

Globalization of the Amazon soy and beef industries: opportunities for conservation.

Amazon beef and soybean industries, the primary drivers of Amazon deforestation, are increasingly responsive to economic signals emanating from around the world, such as those associated with bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE, "mad cow disease") outbreaks and China's economic growth. The expanding role of these economic "teleconnections" (coupled phenomena that take place in distant places on the planet) led to a 3-year period (2002-2004) of historically high deforestation rates. But it also increases the potential for large-scale conservation in the region as markets and finance institutions demand better environmental and social performance of beef and soy producers. Cattle ranchers and soy farmers who have generally opposed ambitious government regulations that require forest reserves on private property are realizing that good land stewardship-including compliance with legislation-may increase their access to expanding domestic and international markets and to credit and lower the risk of "losing" their land to agrarian reform. The realization of this potential depends on the successful negotiation of social and environmental performance criteria and an associated system of certification that are acceptable to both the industries and civil society. The foot-and-mouth eradication system, in which geographic zones win permission to export beef, may provide an important model for the design of a low-cost, peer-enforced, socioenvironmental certification system that becomes the mechanism by which beef and soy industries gain access to markets outside the Amazon.

Agriculture↗