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[Anniversaries of the Serbian Medical Society, 1962: 90 years since the founding of the Society and its realization and recognition].

The 90th anniversary of the Serbian Medical Association was celebrated at the end of a period that surpassed the previous achievements of the Association--a system of medical protection was built, medical schools in Nish and Novi Sad were founded, and new medical institutions were erected. The construction of a system of medical protection was linked to the "social system, which in itself provides further development of the system in the direction of encompassing the total population". One could also detect in this intention an uncritical transfer of the concept of the National Health Service of Great Britain, when the requirements, health conditions and aging of the population were not similar to the present population. The Managing Board of the Serbian Medical Association of that time founded the Section of general practitioners and proposed the introduction of specialization of general medicine. The jubilee is preceded by years in which new medical institutions were built and medical schools founded in Nish and Novi Sad. The role of some members of the Serbian Medical Association and of the Managing Board was prominent in some documents dating only a couple of decades after these events. Certain documents and monographs published in celebration of an anniversary of the School of Medicine or of some medical institutions no longer mention the role of the Association. This is also the case with a monograph published in celebration of the 45th Jubilee of the Institute of Mother and Child Health Protection. That monograph does not include the activties of the Association and the first resolution of the Serbian Medical Association after the liberation, in 1946, was related to the problem of medical protection of the young "as the most important task of popular medical policy". In the monograph about the foundation of the Medical School in Novi Sad, the only connection with the past is the mention of date when the Medical School was founded. The 90th anniversary of the Serbian Medical Association, when some of the members were honored for their contributions, is the only anniversary in the long history of the Association. In total 47 doctors were honored. On the same occasion the Serbian Medical Association honored 92 doctors with memorial plaque for the "contribution to the activity of the Association".

History, 19th Century↗
PubMed1978

Derivatized silica spheres as immunospecific markers for high resolution labeling in electron microscopy.

For high resolution labeling of influenza virus cell surface antigens on HeLa cells, an immunospecific marker is used with silica sphere cores of 13--14 nm average diameter. These markers are formed using commercially available silica sphere sols. Two other size ranges are available, 7--8 nm and 22--25 nm. The steps for chemical derivatization are described in detail. Amino and aldehyde functions are covalently introduced onto the sphere surface. Sols of these derivatized silica spheres (DSS) are physicochemically stable and therefore usable for years. Coupling of IgG to DSS followed by permeation chromatography on controlled pore glass results in size-defined immunospecific silica sphere markers (DSS-markers). Saturation labeling of cell surface antigens on HeLa cells on cover slips is obtained with the final sphere concentration of 10(14) DSS-marker/cm3 within 20 min. With usual protective conditions, the marker stability and labeling ability are preserved for months. The visibility and the fine structure of the DSS-marker on cell surfaces are shown by using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) with stereo replicas and ultrathin sections.

Antigens, Surface↗
PubMed2002

Sprains about the foot and ankle encountered in the workmans' compensation patient.

Soft tissue injury in the workmans' compensation patient population has been previously poorly understood. Injuries that do not show up easily on radiographs are often undertriaged and undertreated. With the advent of improved imaging techniques, an enhanced understanding of soft tissue injuries has evolved over the past few years. Coupled with improved surgical and rehabilitation techniques, severely injured patients are able to experience remarkable recoveries. Many cannot return to previous function. These patients pose challenges to the astute clinician with regards to psychosocial issues relative to secondary gain. In addition, State-to-State variations in the workmans' compensation laws can confuse clinicians. Because of the protections and laws set in place in the United States, these patients can frequently be returned to the workforce as grateful and productive members of society.

Accidents, Occupational↗
PubMed2003

Fatal injuries in the United States involving respirators, 1984-1995.

There is little published information concerning the epidemiology of fatal injuries involving respiratory protection. We compiled a case series from U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration investigation reports from 1984 through 1995. For the 12-year period there were 41 incidents resulting in 45 deaths due to asphyxiation or chemical poisoning while wearing a respirator. There were 23 deaths related to airline respirators, 17 deaths involving use of negative pressure (air purifying) respirators, and 5 deaths involving self-contained breathing apparatus. Among the 23 deaths involving airline respirators, 15 were associated with compatible connection couplings for breathable air and inert gases. Three workers with beards died who wore tight-fitting respirators in an atmosphere that was immediately dangerous to life and health. Most of the fatalities involved regulatory and procedural violations, and would have been prevented by proper training and compliance with existing regulations. The information concerning the victims was limited but it did not appear that medical screening would have prevented any of the deaths.

Accidents, Occupational↗
PubMed2004

The new Italian IVF legislation.

Last February, the Italian Parliament gave final approval to a new Law regulating assisted reproduction technology. The new legislation fell short of the expectations of infertile couples and of all specialists in the field. There are three problems with the new Italian law; they involve social issues, human rights and the application of technology. The present paper focuses on the fact that the new rules infringe upon basic human rights and the proper application of IVF technology, because they mandate procedures that are against the best interest of the woman seeking pregnancy. The main point of controversy is the combination of a mandatory limit of three embryos for transfer, and an obligation to reimplant all produced embryos; cryopreservation of excess embryos is prohibited. Obviously, this decreases the chances of most women to achieve pregnancy, while at the same time it increases the number and complexity of procedures they need to undergo and may expose some to an unacceptable increase in the risk of multiple pregnancy. The new law is inspired by the desire to protect every newly produced embryo; this is a commendable aim, although it is in total opposition to a law passed over 25 years ago that liberalized voluntary termination of first trimester pregnancies. This means that today Italy has a law that protects every early, pre-implantation embryo, and another that allows the 'suppression' of every post-implantation one. From a technical point of view, given the low level of human fecundity, the only way to prevent the 'loss' of even one preimplantation embryo is to simply ban IVF altogether, an option that Italian legislators obviously did not have the courage to opt for. The tragedy is that Italian infertile couples are now confronted with new rules that not only severely limit the ability of physicians to correctly apply IVF technology, but are so confused that, depending on the interpretation, anyone may try to nullify the main ideological premise upon which the entire law has been structured.

Embryo Implantation↗
PubMed2006

Conjunctival FOXP3 expression in trachoma: do regulatory T cells have a role in human ocular Chlamydia trachomatis infection?

BACKGROUND: Trachoma, caused by ocular infection with Chlamydia trachomatis, remains the leading infectious cause of blindness and in 2002 was responsible for 3.6% of total global blindness. Although transmission can be successfully interrupted using antibiotics and improvements in public and personal hygiene, the long-term success of the control programmes advocated by the World Health Organization are still uncertain. For the complete control and prevention of trachoma, a vaccine would be highly desirable. Currently there are no licensed vaccines for trachoma, and no human vaccine trials have been conducted since the 1960s. A barrier to new attempts to design and introduce a vaccine is the identification of immunologic correlates of protective immunity or immunopathology. We studied important correlates of the immune response in a trachoma-endemic population in order to improve our knowledge of this disease. This is essential for the successful development of a vaccine against both ocular and genital C. trachomatis infection. METHODS AND FINDINGS: We used quantitative real-time PCR for C. trachomatis 16S rRNA to identify conjunctival infection. The expression of IFN-gamma, IDO, IL-10, and FOXP3 mRNA transcripts was measured. We evaluated the role of immune effector and regulatory responses in the control of chlamydial infection and in the resolution of clinical signs of trachoma in endemic communities in Gambia. All host transcripts examined were detectable even in normal conjunctiva. The levels of these transcripts were increased, compared to normal uninfected conjunctiva, when infection was detected, with or without clinical disease signs. Interestingly, when clinical disease signs were present in the absence of infection, the expression of a regulatory T cell transcription factor, FOXP3, remained elevated. CONCLUSIONS: There is evidence of an increase in the magnitude of the local anti-chlamydial cytokine immune responses with age. This increase is coupled to a decline in the prevalence of infection and active trachoma, suggesting that effective adaptive immunity is acquired over a number of years. The anti-chlamydial and inflammatory immune response at the conjunctival surface, which may control chlamydial replication, is closely matched by counter inflammatory or regulatory IL-10 expression. Differences in the level of FOXP3 expression in the conjunctiva may indicate a role for regulatory T cells in the resolution of the conjunctival immune response, which is important in protection from immunopathology. However, the expression of cytokines that control chlamydial replication and those that regulate the conjunctival immune response is not simply juxtaposed; the interaction between the infection and the clinical disease process is therefore more complex.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Selenium levels of patients with newly diagnosed prostate cancer compared with control group.

OBJECTIVES: To compare the toenail selenium level of patients with prostate cancer with that of controls. A tumor-protective effect of selenium has been discussed for many years. Published data about the influence of the selenium level in the plasma and toenails are controversial. METHODS: Our prospective study included 150 patients. Of these, 70 patients had recently diagnosed prostate cancer (cancer group) and 80 patients had no evidence of prostate cancer (negative digital rectal examination and prostate-specific antigen level within age-specific range or negative biopsies) or any other malignant disease (control group). Toenail clippings exhibit selenium levels for up to 1 year. Both groups were compared by assessing their selenium levels using inductively coupled plasma dynamic reaction cell mass spectrometry after microwave-assisted closed vessel digestion. The results of the selenium levels in both groups were statistically compared using the Wilcoxon test. Possible correlations between the selenium level and age, body mass index, smoking habits, and prostate cancer were analyzed by multiple regression analysis. RESULTS: The median age of the cancer and control group was 65 and 69 years, respectively. The median toenail selenium level in the cancer and control group was 528 ng/g (range 393 to 4274) and 502 ng/g (range 201 to 831), respectively (P value not statistically significant). Furthermore, no correlation was found between selenium level and age, body mass index, or smoking status. CONCLUSIONS: The patients in our study with newly diagnosed and not yet treated prostate cancer did not have different toenail selenium levels than controls. Body selenium levels may not influence prostate cancer incidence. A protective effect of selenium for prostate cancer seems questionable.

Aged↗
PubMed2005

Group B streptococcal colonization and serotype-specific immunity in healthy elderly persons.

BACKGROUND: The burden from group B streptococcal (GBS) disease in elderly persons (age, >or=65 years) has increased. Rates of colonization and prevalence of antibodies against capsular polysaccharides (CPS) that might confer protection against invasive GBS disease in such persons are not defined. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey was conducted in an outpatient setting in Houston. GBS colonization rates in this convenience sample were assessed by self-obtained vaginal and rectal specimens (for women) and rectal and urine specimens (for men). The CPS type distribution among GBS isolates was determined, and CPS-specific antibodies against GBS types Ia, Ib, II, III, and V were quantified by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. RESULTS: The GBS colonization rate among 254 healthy elderly participants (mean age, 73 years) was 21.7%. CPS types Ia (22.8%), III (12.3%), and V (47.3%) predominated, and 12.3% of colonizing isolates were nontypeable. Random selection of 1 member of 33 participating married couples did not alter the overall colonization rate (21.7%) or GBS serotype distribution. The geometric mean concentrations of CPS-specific IgG in serum specimens were low and were significantly lower for GBS type V, compared with other serotypes (P<.001). CONCLUSIONS: Adults >or=65 years of age are colonized with GBS at a rate similar to that of younger persons, but older adults are significantly more likely to carry type V, the leading cause of invasive disease in elderly persons, and to lack type V CPS-specific serum IgG. The CPS of type V GBS should be included in candidate GBS vaccines so that adults >or=65 years of age theoretically could be protected against invasive disease.

Aged↗
PubMed2004

Active immunization against murine TNFalpha peptides in mice: generation of endogenous antibodies cross-reacting with the native cytokine and in vivo protection.

New lines of treatment targeting cytokines have been successfully developed recently and are now widely used in therapy. They are based on passive administration of cytokine inhibitors either soluble receptors or mAbs and the major example is TNFalpha in rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Since a few years, our group has developed a novel alternative approach targeting cytokines by using active immunization against biologically inactive but immunogenic cytokine derivatives. In the present work, we present a new aspect of this research, based on immunization against specific cytokine peptides chosen by molecular modelling. We could elicit a significant humoral response against four TNFalpha peptides by active immunization, and show that the Abs generated cross-reacted with the native cytokine with good titers as determined by ELISA. Interestingly, during coimmunization experiments with couples of peptides, one showed a clear immunodominant effect over the other. Overall, we could not show the neutralization of TNFalpha biological activity in vitro by the immunized sera, but it seems that it is not a prerequisite to observe clinical efficacy. Indeed, using the LPS/galactosamine-induced shock, we could demonstrate that one of the four peptides tested conferred a clinical protection. These results validate the feasibility and efficacy of active immunization against cytokine peptides, and confirm that active immunization against cytokines could represent in the future an alternative to passive immunization in many diseases.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed2005

Preterm birth in twins after subfertility treatment: population based cohort study.

OBJECTIVES: To assess gestational length and prevalence of preterm birth among medically and naturally conceived twins; to establish the role of zygosity and chorionicity in assessing gestational length in twins born after subfertility treatment. DESIGN: Population based cohort study. SETTING: Collaborative network of 19 maternity facilities in East Flanders, Belgium (East Flanders prospective twin survey). PARTICIPANTS: 4368 twin pairs born between 1976 and 2002, including 2915 spontaneous twin pairs, 710 twin pairs born after ovarian stimulation, and 743 twin pairs born after in vitro fertilisation or intracytoplasmic sperm injection. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Gestational length and prevalence of preterm birth. RESULTS: Compared with naturally conceived twins, twins resulting from subfertility treatment had on average a slightly decreased gestational age at birth (mean difference 4.0 days, 95% confidence interval 2.7 to 5.2), corresponding to an odds ratio of 1.6 (1.4 to 1.8) for preterm birth, albeit confined to mild preterm birth (34-36 weeks). The adjusted odds ratios of preterm birth after subfertility treatment were 1.3 (1.1 to 1.5) when controlled for birth year, maternal age, and parity and 1.6 (1.3 to 1.8) with additional control for fetal sex, caesarean section, zygosity, and chorionicity. Although an increased risk of preterm birth was therefore seen among twins resulting from subfertility treatment, the risk was largely caused by a first birth effect among subfertile couples; conversely, the risk of prematurity was substantially levelled off by the protective effect of dizygotic twinning. CONCLUSIONS: Twins resulting from subfertility treatment have an increased risk of preterm birth, but the risk is limited to mild preterm birth, primarily by virtue of dizygotic twinning.

Birth Weight↗
PubMed2004

A very virulent genotype of infectious bursal disease virus predominantly associated with recurrent infectious bursal disease outbreaks in Tunisian vaccinated flocks.

Outbreaks of infectious bursal disease (IBD) still continue to afflict the Tunisian poultry industry even in those flocks where the vaccination program is strictly applied. To characterize the viruses that circumvent protection provided by vaccination, field isolates of infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) obtained from vaccinated flocks that have repeatedly experienced IBDV outbreak episodes were analyzed from bursal samples by reverse transcription coupled with polymerase chain reaction and dideoxynucleotide sequencing of the VP2 hypervariable region. Although sequence data were obtained from samples collected from three distinct flocks over a period of 3 years, only limited sequence variation has been observed. The few nucleotide changes were silent and the deduced amino acid sequences were identical. Thus, the virus population that predominates in the field seems to represent a homogeneous antigenic pool. Compared with the VP2 sequences of several IBDV strains, this predominant pool was found to be closely related to the very virulent (vv) IBDV viruses described in Europe and Asia. Sequence and phylogenetic analysis of the precursor polyprotein coding sequence of a representative Tunisian isolate further confirmed its assignment to the vv genotype. The deduced amino acid sequence of the whole polyprotein of the Tunisian isolate was found to be identical to a South Korean IBDV strain. Alignment of the polyprotein amino acid sequence of 35 IBDV strains identified additional mutations outside the VP2 variable domain and which occur frequently in vv strains. Based on this comparative analysis, the set of amino acid residues that should represent a typical vv profile involves Ala222, Ile242, Ile256, Ile294, Leu451, Tyr680, N685, Ser715, Asp751, Val990, and Ala1005. Such a combination of amino acid changes was observed for the majority of vvIBDV strains that define a distinct phylogroup.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed1994

The endothelium in health and disease.

The early observations of an apparent anomalous action of acetylcholine on the regulation of vascular tone in vivo and in vitro were found to be a reflection of the intactness of the endothelium in vivo. An intact endothelium mediates relaxation of smooth muscle in response to acetylcholine, whereas endothelium-denuded blood vessels exposed to this agonist often exhibit vasoconstriction. The vasodilation is mediated by the actions of the endothelium-derived relaxing factors nitric oxide and prostacyclin. In addition, endothelial cells release endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factor, which regulates potassium-channel opening in vascular smooth muscle. The chemical nature of this molecule remains to be elucidated. Many of the physiologic stimulants for endothelium-derived relaxing factor production are released by aggregating platelets, and the significance of the endothelium's vasoprotective role becomes apparent when the mechanisms and consequences of platelet agglutination are studied. Damage to the endothelium, however minor, results in the loss of this protective function and is associated with an impaired response to serotonin of G-protein coupled receptors. In the presence of risk factors such as elevated serum cholesterol, the consequences of an impaired endothelial function are greatly enhanced. Age-related changes in endothelial responsiveness may account for the prevalence of cardiovascular disease in human beings over the age of 30 years.

Blood Platelets↗
PubMed1994

Investigation of mammalian lignan precursors in flax seed: first evidence of secoisolariciresinol diglucoside in two isomeric forms by liquid chromatograph/mass spectrometry.

A strong research effort has been devoted in recent years to the mammalian lignans enterolactone and enterodiol because of their claimed protective effects against breast and colon cancer. Some plant lignans appear to be precursors of these molecules. This paper reports a novel identification procedure for one of these precursors, the secoisolariciresinol diglucoside, in the extracts of defatted flax-seed meal. The procedure is based on high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with either ionspray or continuous-flow fast-atom bombardment mass spectrometry. The application of these techniques allowed the identification in flax seed of two isomeric forms of this precursor for the first time. The isomers are reasonable the two diastereoisomers, due to the two equivalent stereogenic centers present in the molecule.

Butylene Glycols↗
PubMed2000

Social policies and the pathways to inequalities in health: a comparative analysis of lone mothers in Britain and Sweden.

The aim of this study is to contribute to the emerging field of health inequalities impact assessment. It develops further a conceptual framework that encompasses the policy context as well as the pathways leading from social position to inequalities in health. It then uses this framework for a comparative analysis of social policies and their points of potential impact on the pathways leading from lone motherhood to ill health in Britain and Sweden. The British General Household Survey and the Swedish Survey of Living Conditions are analysed for the 17 years from 1979 to 1995/96. First, the results show that the health of lone mothers is poor in Sweden as well as in Britain and, most notably, that the magnitude of the differential between lone and couple mothers is of a similar order in Sweden as in Britain. This is despite the more favourable social policies in Sweden, which our results indicate have protected lone mothers from poverty and insecurity in the labour market to a much greater degree than the equivalent British policies over the 1980s and 1990s. Second, the pathways leading to the observed health disadvantage of lone mothers appear to be very different in the two countries in relation to the identified policy entry points. Overall, in Britain, around 50% of the health disadvantage of lone mothers is accounted for by the mediating factors of poverty and joblessness, whereas in Sweden these factors only account for between 3% and 13% of the health gap. The final section discusses the implications of the findings for future policy intervention and research in the two countries.

Cross-Cultural Comparison↗
PubMed2001

The future fertility of mankind: effects on world population growth and migration.

The world's population, currently just over 6 billion, is projected to increase to 9-10 billion by the year 2050. Most of this growth will occur in the developing countries of Asia, where there is an enormous unmet demand for contraception, while an increasing number of developed countries will have declining populations. The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) pandemic will target developing countries, with India destined to become its new epicenter. By 2050, there may be 1 billion HIV-infected people in the world. The significant protective effect of male circumcision may spare Islamic countries, such as Pakistan, Bangladesh, Iran and Indonesia, from the worst effects of the pandemic. Australia will be increasingly threatened by the high rates of population growth of her Asian neighbours. This, coupled with political instability and sea-level rises as a consequence of global warming, will turn the present trickle of refugees from a variety of Asian countries seeking safe haven on our sparsely populated northern coastline into a veritable flood. There will come a time when we have neither the manpower, nor the means, nor even the moral right to intercept, detain or repatriate the thousands who will come in peace, in search of a better life. However, if Australia is to stabilize its future population at around 23 million, which seems highly desirable on ecological grounds, then the net immigration rate must be limited to approximately 50000 people per year. Because the final point of departure for all these refugees is Indonesia, it is essential that Australia maintains good relations with Indonesia, so that together we can attempt to manage the refugee problem. However, Indonesia's own population is destined to increase by 100 million in the next 50 years, which will only exacerbate the situation. Australia would be well advised to make a major increase in its paltry financial assistance to Indonesia's excellent family planning programmes, which are currently starved of funds. Helping Indonesia to contain its population growth is Australia's best long-term investment for its own future.

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome↗
PubMed1992

How infection control procedures are affecting dental practice today.

The past couple of years have given U.S. dentists a lot to think about. OSHA regulations, a declining economy, lingering concerns about fluoridation, dental amalgam and safety in health care settings have captured the attention of dentists everywhere.

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome↗
PubMed2005

Public, expert and patients' opinions on preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) in Germany.

The regulation of reproductive medicine technologies differs significantly among Western industrialized countries. In Germany, preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) is prohibited due to the Embryo Protection Act, which came into force in 1991. In the last 5 years, this prohibition has been vigorously debated. In the present studies, which are part of the German research programme on ethical implications of the Human Genome Project, representative surveys were undertaken to assess the attitudes on PGD in the general population (n = 1017), five relevant expert groups (n = 879), high genetic risk couples (n = 324) and couples undergoing IVF (n = 108). All groups surveyed clearly favoured allowing PGD in Germany. Compared with the results of recently conducted population surveys in the UK and the USA, where PGD is already carried out, public approval of PGD does not differ significantly. The influence of restrictive biopolitics on the apparently liberal public opinion towards new reproductive technology seems to be marginal according to the present data, which should carefully be considered in the ongoing legislation process on human reproduction.

Abortion, Induced↗
PubMed2001

Condom effectiveness in reducing heterosexual HIV transmission.

BACKGROUND: The amount of protection that condoms provide for HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases is unknown. Cohort studies of sexually active HIV serodiscordant couples with follow-up of the seronegative partner, provide a situation in which a seronegative partner has known exposure to the disease and disease incidence can be estimated. When some individuals use condoms and some do not, namely some individuals use condoms 100% of the time and some never use (0%) condoms, condom effectiveness can be estimated by comparing the two incidence rates. Condom effectiveness is the proportionate reduction in disease due to the use of condoms. OBJECTIVES: The objective of this review is to estimate condom effectiveness in reducing heterosexual transmission of HIV. SEARCH STRATEGY: Studies were located using electronic databases (AIDSLINE, CINAHL, Embase, and MEDLINE) and handsearched reference lists. SELECTION CRITERIA: For inclusion, studies had to have: (1) data concerning sexually active HIV serodiscordant heterosexual couples, (2) a longitudinal study design, (3) HIV status determined by serology, and (4) contain condom usage information on a cohort of always (100%) or never (0%) condom users. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Studies identified through the above search strategy that met the inclusion criteria were reviewed for inclusion in the analysis. Sample sizes, number of seroconversions, and the person-years of disease-free exposure time were recorded for each cohort. If available, the direction of transmission in the cohort (male-to-female, female-to-male), date of study enrollment, source of infection in the index case, and the presence of STDs was recorded. Duplicate reports on the same cohort and studies with incomplete or nonsepecific information were excluded. HIV incidence was estimated from the cohorts of "always" users and for the cohorts of "never" users. Effectiveness was estimated from these two incidence estimates. MAIN RESULTS: Of the 4709 references that were initially identified, 14 were included in the final analysis. There were 13 cohorts of "always" users that yielded an homogeneous HIV incidence estimate of 1.14 [95% C.I.:.56, 2.04] per 100 person-years. There were 10 cohorts of "never" users that appeared to be heterogeneous. The studies with the longest follow-up time, consisting mainly of studies of partners of hemophiliac and transfusion patients, yielded an HIV incidence estimate of 5.75 [95% C.I.: 3.16, 9.66] per 100 person-years. Overall effectiveness, the proportionate reduction in HIV seroconversion with condom use, is approximately 80%. REVIEWER'S CONCLUSIONS: This review indicates that consistent use of condoms results in 80% reduction in HIV incidence. Consistent use is defined as using a condom for all acts of penetrative vaginal intercourse. Because the studies used in this review did not report on the "correctness" of use, namely whether condoms were used correctly and perfectly for each and every act of intercourse, effectiveness and not efficacy is estimated. Also, this estimate refers in general to the male condom and not specifically to the latex condom, since studies also tended not to specify the type of condom that was used. Thus, condom effectiveness is similar to, although lower than, that for contraception.

Cohort Studies↗