Biogeography of parasites in Australia.
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Biogeography of Brazilian populations of Panstrongylus megistus (Hemiptera, Reduviidae, Triatominae) based on molecular marker and paleo-vegetational data.
In epidemiological terms, Panstrongylus megistus is one of the most important species of triatomine bug in Brazil. Samples from 11 localities were studied using the random amplification of polymorphic DNA (RAPD) technique, which was able to differentiate the study populations clearly. Biogeographical data indicate that these populations could already have arisen 18,000 years ago (C(14)), it being possible to differentiate insects from the Brazilian states of Santa Catarina (SC) in the south, Ceará (CE) in the northeast and another large intermediate block containing the remaining eight populations from five other states. These results agree with those obtained by phenograms constructed from RAPD data, in which the SC population lies opposite those of CE, consistent with the greatest geographical distance between these localities. The other eight populations (Alagoas (AL), Bahia (BA), Goiás (GO), Minas Gerais (MG) and São Paulo (SP)) are closer genetically and originated in areas whose vegetational characteristics have remained similar to each other during the last 18,000 years, thus allowing greater contact between them. The greatest divergence of this group of insects and those of Ceará appears to have occurred 8000 years ago. This more humid period gave rise to other landscape changes, allowing greater differentiation of the vegetation and consequent expansion of P. megistus populations. Formation of the Serras do Mar and Mantiqueira probably created geographical barriers that favored a certain degree of isolation and greater differentiation of the SC population. Atlantic forest remnants within the caatinga domain (created between 25 and 17,000 years ago), where the CE populations originated probably constitute ecological refugia produced by successive amplification and retraction of the most suitable habitats for this species.
Animals↗
Population history, biogeography, and taxonomy of orangutans (Genus: Pongo) based on a population genetic meta-analysis of multiple loci.
This paper examines orangutan population history and evolution through a meta-analysis of seven loci collected from both Sumatran and Bornean orangutans. Within orangutans, most loci show that the Sumatran population is about twice as diverse as the Bornean population. Orangutans are more diverse than African apes and humans. Sumatran and Bornean populations show significant genetic differentiation from one another and their history does not differ significantly from an 'island model' (population splitting without gene flow). Two different methods support a divergence of Bornean and Sumatran orangutans at 2.7-5 million years ago. This suggests that Pleistocene events, such as the cyclical exposure of the Sunda shelf and the Toba volcanic eruption, did not have a major impact on the divergence of Bornean and Sumatran orangutans. Pairwise mismatch analyses, however, suggest that Bornean orangutans have undergone a recent population expansion (beginning 39,000-64,000 years ago), while Sumatran orangutan populations were stable. Pleistocene events may have contributed to these aspects of orangutan population history. These conclusions are applied to the debate on orangutan taxonomy.
Animals↗
Biogeography and evolution of the genus Homo.
The debate about the origins of modern humans has traditionally focussed on two contrasting views. Multi-regional evolution proposes that present-day populations worldwide are the descendants of in situ evolution after an initial dispersal of Homo erectus from Africa during the Lower Pleistocene. The alternative, Out-of-Africa 2, proposes that all present-day populations are descended from a recent common ancestor that lived in East Africa approximately 150 000 years ago, the population of which replaced all regional populations. The weight of the evidence is now in favour of Out-of-Africa 2, and discussion is now dominated by the causes of the dispersal of modern humans out of Africa and the outcome of contact with other populations. Fresh approaches, from disciplines hitherto peripheral to the debate, such as evolutionary ecology, and new discoveries are challenging established views, particularly the prevalent idea that biologically superior modern humans were the cause of the demise of all other populations of Homo worldwide. Climate-driven ecological change has been, as with many other taxa, the driving force in the geographical range dynamics of the genus Homo.
Journal Article↗
Shifting sands and shifty lizards: molecular phylogeny and biogeography of African flat lizards (Platysaurus).
The African flat lizard genus Platysaurus is widely distributed on rock outcrops in southern Africa and is found both east and west of the Kalahari Desert and between major river drainage systems. We assembled a molecular phylogeny for the genus in order to test several biogeographic hypotheses. Sequence data were obtained from 29 specimens representing 14 taxa of Platysaurus that span the geographic range of the genus. We targeted a fragment of the mitochondrial genome comprising the 3' half of the ND4 gene and most of the flanking tRNA-HSL cluster. The edited alignment comprised 864 characters, of which 479 (55%) were variable and 461 (96%) parsimony informative. Overall, the phylogeny was well resolved and supported by high bootstrap values. Four major clades were identified comprising two to seven species: P. mitchelli and P. maculatus maculatus from the north-eastern range of the genus; P. broadleyi and P. capensis from the western range; P. imperator, P. torquatus, and P. intermedius rhodesianus; P. i. intermedius, P. monotropis, P. minor, P. i. nigrescens, P. lebomboensis, P. i. wilhelmi, and P. o. orientalis. Platysaurus has been suggested to represent a recent adaptive radiation where rapid speciation was fuelled by population fragmentation brought on by vicariant events and possibly divergent sexual selection. The traditional explanation for the radiation of the genus is that the eastern migration of the Kalahari sands fragmented populations in the Plio-Pleistocene, resulting in conditions favorable for speciation. Our genetic data strongly suggests that many of the speciation events in Platysaurus already had occurred prior to the Plio-Pleistocene. Moreover, vicariant events associated with the formation of the major river systems played an additional role in the evolution and distribution of Platysaurus species. Our topology displays long internodes and long terminal branches, suggesting that the radiation is much older than previously believed.
3' Flanking Region↗
Molecular systematics and biogeography of the bent-wing bat complex Miniopterus schreibersii (Kuhl, 1817) (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae).
The complete mitochondrial ND2 gene (1037 bp) was sequenced to examine relationships within the bent-wing bat complex, Miniopterus schreibersii (Family Vespertilionidae). It was found that M. schreibersii is a paraphyletic assemblage comprising several species. Two major lineages were identified, one of which was restricted to the Palearctic-Ethiopian regions and the other to the Oriental-Australasian regions. This pattern of differentiation was mirrored by the genus as a whole. Speciation and differentiation within the genus Miniopterus appears to have a hierarchical geographical pattern. The earliest divergence corresponds to the Ethiopian-Palearctic and the Oriental-Australasian biogeographical zones. This early divergence is then followed by radiations within each of the Ethiopian, Oriental and Australasian regions. The study also revealed that the number of species currently recognized (11 or 13) is a gross underestimate of the number of actual species. The emerging picture is one of a relatively speciose genus with most species having relatively restricted distributions; few, if any, occur in more than one biogeographical region.
Animals↗
Molecular phylogeny and biogeography of the dung beetle genus Temnoplectron Westwood (Scarabaeidae: Scarabaeinae) from Australia's wet tropics.
The landscape of the Australian Wet Tropics can be described as "islands" of montane rainforest surrounded by warmer or more xeric habitats. Historical glaciation cycles have caused expansion and contraction of these rainforest "islands" leading to consistent patterns of genetic divergence within species of vertebrates. To explore whether this dynamic history has promoted speciation in endemic and diverse groups of insects, we used a combination of mtDNA sequencing and morphological characters to estimate relationships and the tempo of divergence among Australian representatives of the dung beetle genus Temnoplectron. This phylogenetic hypothesis shares a number of well-supported clades with a previously published phylogenetic hypothesis based on morphological data, though statistical support for several nodes is weak. Sister species relationships well-supported in both tree topologies, and a tree obtained by combining the two data sets, suggest that speciation has mostly been allopatric. We identify a number of speciation barriers, which coincide with phylogeographic breaks found in vertebrate species. Large sequence divergences between species emphasize that speciation events are ancient (pre-Pleistocene). The flightless, rainforest species appear to have speciated rapidly, but also in the distant past.
Animals↗
The black widow spider genus Latrodectus (Araneae: Theridiidae): phylogeny, biogeography, and invasion history.
The spider genus Latrodectus includes the widely known black widows, notorious because of the extreme potency of their neurotoxic venom. The genus has a worldwide distribution and comprises 30 currently recognized species, the phylogenetic relationships of which were previously unknown. Several members of the genus are synanthropic, and are increasingly being detected in new localities, an occurrence attributed to human mediated movement. In particular, the nearly cosmopolitan range of the brown widow, Latrodectus geometricus, is a suspected consequence of human transport. Although the taxonomy of the genus has been examined repeatedly, the recognition of taxa within Latrodectus has long been considered problematic due to the difficulty associated with identifying morphological features exhibiting discrete geographic boundaries. This paper presents, to our knowledge, the first phylogenetic hypothesis for the Latrodectus genus and is generated from DNA sequences of the mitochondrial gene cytochrome c oxidase subunit I. We recover two well-supported reciprocally monophyletic clades within the genus: (1) the geometricus clade, consisting of Latrodectus rhodesiensis from Africa, and its is sister species, the cosmopolitan L. geometricus, and (2) the mactans clade containing all other Latrodectus species sampled, including taxa occurring in Africa, the Middle East, Iberian Peninsula, Australia, New Zealand, and North and South America. Recovery of the geometricus and mactans clades is consistent with previous designations of species groups within the genus based on female genitalic morphology. All L. geometricus sampled, consisting of specimens from Africa, Argentina, North America, and Hawaii, were recovered as a strongly supported monophyletic group with minimal amounts of genetic divergence, corroborating the hypothesis that human transport has recently expanded the range of this species.
Animals↗
Molecular phylogenetics and biogeography of transisthmian and amphi-Atlantic needlefishes (Belonidae: Strongylura and Tylosurus): perspectives on New World marine speciation.
Phylogenetic relationships among New World and eastern Atlantic species in the belonid genera Strongylura and Tylosurus were hypothesized using 3689bp of nucleotide sequence; including the entire mitochondrial (mtDNA) ATP synthase 6 and 8 genes; partial cytochrome b; 12S and 16S ribosomal genes; and introns and exons, 2 and 3 of the nuclear-encoded creatine kinase B gene. Concordant mtDNA and nuclear genealogies permitted well-supported inference of species relationships within Strongylura and Tylosurus, and of the chronology of diversification in the two genera. Our phylogenetic hypothesis permitted an assessment of Rosen's [Syst. Zool. 24 (1975) 431] model of species diversification across the eastern Atlantic to eastern Pacific marine biogeographic track. The spatial predictions of the Rosen model were generally supported, but not the temporal predictions. Furthermore, long branches leading to terminal Belonidae indicated that many species have persisted for millions of years or that nucleotide substitution rates were elevated for some clades. Though heterogeneity of nucleotide substitution rate was indicated across some belonid lineages, molecular clock estimates were used to hypothesize biogeographic scenarios for Strongylura across the eastern Pacific and Atlantic region. Furthermore, use of a molecular clock indicated; that early diversification among contemporary Strongylura may have been initiated by changes in Atlantic Ocean circulation precipitated by closure of the Tethys Sea; and provided approximate dates for the isolation of the freshwater species on the American continents.
ATP Synthetase Complexes↗
Phylogeny, historical biogeography, and character evolution in bumble bees (Bombus: Apidae) based on simultaneous analysis of three nuclear gene sequences.
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Animals↗
Molecular phylogenetics and biogeography of Neotropical tanagers in the genus Tangara.
Species in the genus Tangara are distributed throughout the New World tropics and vary in their morphology, behavior, and ecology. We used data from the cytochrome b and ND 2 genes to provide the first phylogenetic perspective on the evolution of this diversity. Reconstructions based on parsimony, maximum likelihood, and Bayesian approaches were largely congruent. The genus is monophyletic and consists of two main clades. Within these clades, DNA sequence data confirm the monophyly of most previously recognized species groups within Tangara, indicating general concordance between molecular data and impressions based on geographic distribution, morphology, and behavior. Within some currently recognized species, levels of DNA sequence variation are larger than expected, suggesting multiple taxa may be involved. In contrast, some currently recognized species are only weakly differentiated from their sister species. Biogeographic analyses indicate that many early speciation events occurred in the Andes. More recently, dispersal events followed by subsequent speciation have occurred in other geographic areas of the Neotropics. Assuming a molecular clock, most speciation events occurred well before Pleistocene climatic cycles. The time frame of Tangara speciation corresponds more closely to a period of continued uplift in the Andes during the late Miocene and Pliocene.
Animals↗
MtDNA phylogeny and biogeography of Copelatinae, a highly diverse group of tropical diving beetles (Dytiscidae).
Copelatinae is a diverse lineage of diving beetles (Dytiscidae) frequently encountered in wet tropical and subtropical forests, but phylogenetic relationships are very poorly understood. We performed a phylogenetic and biogeographic analysis of this worldwide distributed group based on 50 species including a representative sample of major taxonomic groups and biogeographical regions. DNA sequences were obtained for the mitochondrial genes cytochrome oxidase I, cytochrome b, and 16S rRNA, for a total of 1575 aligned nucleotide positions. We found Copelatinae to be monophyletic, placed in a derived position and not sister to all remaining dytiscids, as had been suggested by earlier authors. The largest genus, Copelatus with some 460 known species was paraphyletic with respect to the smaller genera Lacconectus and Aglymbus. Among the major lineages of Copelatus, the subgenus Papuadytes was consistently recovered as sister to all other species (including Lacconectus and Aglymbus) with the possible exception of two western Palearctic taxa. We propose that the subgenus Papuadytes is removed from Copelatus and assigned generic status. Likewise, the two western Palearctic Copelatus are removed from this genus, and assigned the available genus name Liopterus. Our best phylogenetic hypothesis retrieved Afrotropical and New Guinean plus Australian species of Copelatus as monophyletic. Asian species were paraphyletic with respect to a species from Sulawesi which grouped with the species from New Guinea. Asian species were also paraphyletic with respect to Oriental Lacconectus, which was grouped with a clade of Neotropical species. Neotropical Copelatus form at least two separate lineages. The biogeographical evolution of Papuadytes is consistent with the relative age of the landmasses in the Austral region. Basal species are Australian, and successively derived ones are from New Caledonia and New Guinea. One species apparently dispersed from New Caledonia to China. Assuming a molecular clock and using a standard calibration of 2% divergence/MY the origin of Copelatinae is estimated to be between 85 and 95 MY.
Animals↗
Evolution and biogeography of marine angelfishes (Pisces: Pomacanthidae).
Phylogenetic relationships among angelfishes (Pomacanthidae) and their putative sister taxon, the butterflyfishes (Chaetodontidae), were examined using 12S and 16S mitochondrial DNA sequences. ML and MP trees were highly congruent with good basal resolution. Monophyly of the two families was supported, although a clade comprising the Chaetodontidae and one of the outgroups, the Scatophagidae, formed the sister clade to the Pomacanthidae. All genera and subgenera within the Pomacanthidae were examined. The relationships among the 24 representative species were consistent with traditional generic boundaries, with the exception of the genus Centropyge, but differed from previous phylogenies. Estimated ages of divergence based on trans-isthmian pairs were compared with independent fossil evidence. Trans-isthmian estimates were highly conservative, while fossil-calibrated estimates were most consistent with available evidence. Fossil calibrated estimates suggest that the family has been impacted by both the Terminal Tethyan Event and the closure of the Isthmus of Panama. Within the family, ecological diversity and species-level diversification are restricted primarily to a single pygmy angelfish clade with an origin near the Oligocene-Miocene boundary.
Adaptation, Biological↗
Molecular phylogeny and biogeography of woolly flying squirrel (Rodentia: Sciuridae), inferred from mitochondrial cytochrome b gene sequences.
To investigate the genetic diversity between the populations of woolly flying squirrels (Eupetaurus) from the eastern and western extremes of the Himalayas, partial mitochondrial cytochrome b gene sequences (390-810 bp) that were determined from the museum specimens were analyzed using maximum parsimony (MP) and maximum likelihood (ML) methods. The molecular data reveal that the two specimens that were collected in northwestern Yunnan (China) are members of the genus Eupetaurus. Reconstructed phylogenetic relationships show that the populations of Eupetaurus in the eastern and western extremes of the Himalayas are two distinct species with significant genetic differences (12%) and diverged about 10.8 million years ago. Eupetaurus is significantly different from Petaurista and Pteromys. The level of estimated pairwise-sequence divergence observed between Eupetaurus and Petaurista or Pteromys is greater than that observed between Eupetaurus and Trogopterus, Belomys, Glaucomys, or Hylopetes. Considering the divergence time of the two Eupetaurus groups, the glaciations and the uplift of the Himalayas and Qinghai-Tibet plateau during the Pliocene-Pleistocene period might be the major factors affecting the present distribution of Eupetaurus along the Himalayas.
Animals↗
Phylogenetic relationships and biogeography of the desert plant genus Fagonia (Zygophyllaceae), inferred by parsimony and Bayesian model averaging.
Phylogenetic relationships within Fagonia were inferred from analyses of plastid trnL intron and nuclear ribosomal ITS DNA sequences. Sampling of the genus was nearly complete, including 32 of 34 species. Phylogenetic analysis was carried out using parsimony, and Bayesian model averaging. The latter method allows model-based inference while accounting for model-selection uncertainty, and is here used for the first time in phylogenetic analyses. All species of Fagonia in the Old World, except F. cretica, form a weakly supported clade, and all Fagonia species of the New World, except F. scoparia, are well supported as sister to the Old World clade. Fagonia scoparia, from Mexico, and F. cretica, from Northern Africa, are well supported as sisters to all other Fagonia species. Vicariance-dispersal analysis, using DIVA, indicated that the occurrences of Fagonia in South America and southern Africa are due to dispersals, and also, that the ancestor of Fagonia had a distribution compatible with the boreotropics hypothesis.
Base Sequence↗
Molecular phylogeny and biogeography of Oriental voles: genus Eothenomys (Muridae, Mammalia).
Oriental voles of the genus Eothenomys are predominantly distributed along the Southeastern shoulder of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. Based on phylogenetic analyses of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene (1143 bp) obtained from 23 specimens (eight species) of Oriental voles collected from this area, together with nucleotide sequences from six specimens (two species) of Japanese red-backed voles (Eothenomys andersoni and Eothenomys smithii) and five species of the closely related genus Clethrionomys, we revised the systematic status of Eothenomys. We also tested if vicariance could explain the observed high species diversity in this area by correlating estimated divergence times to species distribution patterns and corresponding paleo-geographic events. Our results suggest that: (1) the eight species of Oriental voles form a monophyletic group with two distinct clades, and that these two clades should be considered as valid subgenera--Eothenomys and Anteliomys; (2) Eothenomys eleusis and Eothenomys miletus are not independent species; (3) Japanese red-backed voles are more closely related to the genus Clethrionomys than to continental Asian Eothenomys taxa; and (4) the genus Clethrionomys, as presently defined, is paraphyletic. In addition, the process of speciation of Oriental voles appears to be related to the Trans-Himalayan formation via three recent uplift events of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau within the last 3.6 million years, as well as to the effects of the mid-Quaternary ice age.
Animals↗
Phylogeny and biogeography of Rhododendron subsection Pontica, a group with a tertiary relict distribution.
Rhododendron subgenus Hymenanthes subsection Pontica is exceptional among Tertiary relict groups in having a high proportion of species (4 of 11) native to SW Eurasia. A phylogeny based on cpDNA matK and trnL-F indicated that multiple Pontica lineages colonised each of SW Eurasia, SE North America, and NE Asia, with little or no speciation within regions thereafter. Therefore, multiple (3-4) Pontica lineages survived the Quaternary in SW Eurasia, in contrast to other Tertiary relict genera. Pontica comprises two major clades, one of which is wholly Eurasian, and paraphyletic with respect to at least some of the remaining 200 species of subgenus Hymenanthes, which are all distributed in SE Asia. The other clade has species from W and SE North America, SW Eurasia, and NE Asia. According to synonymous matK substitution data, the two clades diverged 9-6 million years ago (mya), whereas most divergence within them happened 5-3 mya. Although the phylogeny indicates probable trans-Atlantic migration for one of two America-Eurasia disjunctions in Pontica, the timing supports migration via Beringia for both.
DNA, Chloroplast↗
Phylogeny and biogeography of the Malagasy and Australasian rainbowfishes (Teleostei: Melanotaenioidei): Gondwanan vicariance and evolution in freshwater.
Phylogenetic relationships of the Malagasy and Australasian rainbowfishes are investigated using 4394 characters derived from five mitochondrial genes (12S, 16S, tRNA-Valine, ND5, and COI), three nuclear genes (28S, histone H3, and TMO-4c4), and 102 morphological transformations. This study represents the first phylogenetic analysis of the endemic Malagasy family Bedotiidae and includes a nearly complete taxonomic review of all nominal species, as well as numerous undescribed species. Simultaneous analysis of the molecular and morphological datasets results in two equally most parsimonious trees. Results indicate that Bedotiidae (Bedotia+Rheocles) and Bedotia are monophyletic, whereas Rheocles is paraphyletic with the inclusion of two recently described species from northeastern Madagascar, R. vatosoa, and R. derhami. Rheocles vatosoa and R. derhami are sister taxa, and this clade is recovered as the sister group to Bedotia. The remaining species of Rheocles are not sexually dimorphic and comprise a clade that is recovered as the sister group to Bedotia+(R. derhami+R. vatosoa), all of which are sexually dichromatic, and sexually dimorphic for pigmentation and fin development. Three geographically distinct clades are recovered within Bedotia, one comprising species with distributions ranging from mid- to southeastern Madagascar, another including species restricted to eastern drainages north of the Masoala Peninsula, and a third comprising taxa with distributions extending from the Masoala Peninsula south to the Ivoloina River. The Australian/New Guinean melanotaeniids are monophyletic and are recovered as the sister group to Bedotiidae. The Australasian Telmatherinidae and Pseudomugilidae comprise a clade that is recovered as the sister group to the Melanotaeniidae-Bedotiidae clade. This sister-group relationship between Malagasy bedotiids and a clade restricted to Australia-New Guinea, and the absence of a close relationship between bedotiids and African or Mascarene atheriniforms, is congruent with the break-up of Gondwana, not a scenario reliant on Cenozoic trans-oceanic dispersal. Finally, results of the phylogenetic analysis indicate that Atheriniformes is polyphyletic and further corroborate recent morphological hypotheses, which have recovered Bedotiidae in a derived position within Atherinoidei.
Animals↗