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PubMed2003

Eicosanoid involvement in the regulation of behavioral fever in the desert locust, Schistocerca gregaria.

The desert locust Schistocerca gregaria behaviorally thermoregulates in order to try and maintain a favoured "set point" body temperature. Locusts infected with the deuteromycete fungal pathogen Metarhizium anisopliae var acridumchoose a significantly elevated temperature. This "behavioral fever" greatly delays the progress of mycosis. We have confirmed this phenomenon and shown that desert locusts also fever when infected with the bacterial pathogen Serratia marcescens. Elevation in the prefered environmental temperature occurs also upon injection with laminarin and lipopolysaccharide (microbial cell wall components). Since such treatments also stimulate the immune system it would appear that "behavioral fever" is probably a feature of the immune response. The eicosanoid biosynthesis inhibitor dexamethasone prevented laminarin invoked fever. This effect was reversable by arachidonic acid. Therefore in common with the febrile response in mammals behavioral fever in insects may be mediated locally by circulating eicosanoids.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

A general account of selection: biology, immunology, and behavior.

Authors frequently refer to gene-based selection in biological evolution, the reaction of the immune system to antigens, and operant learning as exemplifying selection processes in the same sense of this term. However, as obvious as this claim may seem on the surface, setting out an account of "selection" that is general enough to incorporate all three of these processes without becoming so general as to be vacuous is far from easy. In this target article, we set out such a general account of selection to see how well it accommodates these very different sorts of selection. The three fundamental elements of this account are replication, variation, and environmental interaction. For selection to occur, these three processes must be related in a very specific way. In particular, replication must alternate with environmental interaction so that any changes that occur in replication are passed on differentially because of environmental interaction. One of the main differences among the three sorts of selection that we investigate concerns the role of organisms. In traditional biological evolution, organisms play a central role with respect to environmental interaction. Although environmental interaction can occur at other levels of the organizational hierarchy, organisms are the primary focus of environmental interaction. In the functioning of the immune system, organisms function as containers. The interactions that result in selection of antibodies during a lifetime are between entities (antibodies and antigens) contained within the organism. Resulting changes in the immune system of one organism are not passed on to later organisms. Nor are changes in operant behavior resulting from behavioral selection passed on to later organisms. But operant behavior is not contained in the organism because most of the interactions that lead to differential replication include parts of the world outside the organism. Changes in the organism's nervous system are the effects of those interactions. The role of genes also varies in these three systems. Biological evolution is gene-based (i.e., genes are the primary replicators). Genes play very different roles in operant behavior and the immune system. However, in all three systems, iteration is central. All three selection processes are also incredibly wasteful and inefficient. They can generate complexity and novelty primarily because they are so wasteful and inefficient.

Behaviorism↗
PubMed2004

Behavioral and neurochemical responses in mice bearing tumors submitted to social stress.

Through the proinflammatory cytokines secreted in response to inflammation or injury, the immune system produces physiological and behavioral alterations. This study analyzes the effects on behavior, mononuclear proliferative response and central monoamine activity in response to the inoculation of tumor cells in mice submitted to social stress. Two groups of male OF1 mice were used, one of which was inoculated with B16 melanoma cells. Both groups were subdivided into two new groups, with one being submitted to social stress through sensory contact model with a selected aggressive subject, and the other being handled without social interaction. Subjects were exposed to social stress for a 24-h period, with three 5 min intervals of direct physical interaction, where the behavior was recorded and assessed. One hour after the stress and/or handling, they were put down and samples taken for physiological assessment. Significant behavioral changes were found in subjects with implanted tumors, mainly characterized by an increase in avoidance behavior and a decrease in immobility, defense-submission and non-social exploration behavior, coupled with an increase in the spleen mononuclear cell proliferative response. Similarly, an increase was observed in the density of dopamine(2) (D(2))-receptors in the striatum (SRT) and an increase in dopaminergic (DOPAC/DA) and serotonergic (5HIAA/5HT) turnover in the hypothalamus. The increase in the density of D(2)-receptors in the SRT coincides with the decrease in some behaviors with a predominant motor component. The results indicate significant changes in the defensive strategy used to cope with situations of intense social stress in mice bearing tumors.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed2005

Neuroendocrinology of female aging.

BACKGROUND: Because the average human life span has increased, a greater part of more women's lives will be lived in a hypoestrogenic state. OBJECTIVE: This article provides an overview of our current knowledge of the neuroendocrine processes in the aging female brain. METHODS: Using the search terms cardiovascular disease, cognition, dementia, depression, estrogens, female aging, gonadotropins, immune function, mood, neuroendocrinology, neurotransmitters, osteoporosis, and ovarian steroids, a review of English-language literature on the MEDLINE database was conducted from 1970 through June 2004. RESULTS: It is thought that the temporal patterns of neural signals are altered during middle age, leading to cessation of reproductive cycles, and that the complex interplay of ovarian and hypothalamic/pituitary pacemakers becomes increasingly dysfunctional with aging, ultimately resulting in menopause. Estrogen deficiency is associated with low mood, whereas estrogen therapy tends to be linked with improvements in measures of well-being and a decline in depression scores. It is likely that these effects of estrogens are mediated through changes in the metabolism of serotonin and nor epinephrine. Evidence exists to support the role of estrogens in specific effects on cognitive functioning in women, enhancing aspects of verbal memory, abstract reasoning, and information processing. Significant gender dimorphism is evident in both humoral and cell-mediated immune responses. The effects of estrogens on the cardiovascular system are complex; recent evidence suggests a negative role for oral estrogen in primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular events. Additionally, estrogens increase the risk of stroke, and estrogen deficiency influences the pathogenesis of osteoporosis in both men and women. CONCLUSIONS: Changes in the neuroendocrine system due to the loss of ovarian function at menopause have an important biological role in the control of reproductive and nonreproductive functions, and regulate mood, memory, cognition, behavior, immune function, the locomotor system, and cardiovascular functions. More detailed insights are needed into the complex mechanisms of neuroendocrine alterations with aging.

Affect↗
PubMed2004

["Sickness behavior"--mechanisms of origin and significance].

Psychoneuroimmunology, a combination of immunology and neurobiology, is a new field that has emerged over the past 20 years. There is now overwhelming evidence suggesting that the central nervous system is capable of regulating the immune response via two pathways--the autonomic and the neuroendocrine. It is also well documented that the immune system can influence the central nervous system by regulatory molecules or cytokines produced by activated immune cells. In this way, there is a bi-directional communication pathway between the two systems. Sickness behavior seems to present excellent evidence for the existence of immune-system-brain communication. Nonspecific symptoms of infection and inflammation include not only profound physiological but also behavioral changes. Behavioral changes can include anorexia, adipsia, increased sleepiness and depression in social, sexual exploration and general activity. These behavioral changes triggered by pro-inflammatory cytokines are thought to have evolved to conserve the energy necessary to fight infection. They may also minimize infection of conspecifics and reduce susceptibility to predation. Taken together, sickness behavior represents a behavioral reorganization highly motivated to promote survival and recovery. Knowing the mechanisms of neuroimmunomodulation allow us to better understand both the behavioral changes associated with immunotherapy and the changes in immune activation in major depression and other mental disorders.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Substance P and Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection: Psychoneuroimmunology.

Effects on the immune system caused by changes in behavioral state or brain activity are mediated, at least in part, through neuroendocrine-immune pathways. Life stress and depression may be associated with altered blood levels of central nervous system-released neuropeptides, including substance P (SP). SP acts as a neuroregulator or neurotransmitter in the conduction of nociceptive stimuli, and is a modulator of neuroimmunoregulation. This review summarizes current knowledge regarding the role of the neuropeptide, SP, in psychoneuroimmunology, in particular as it relates to human immunodeficiency virus infection and acquired immunodeficiency disease syndrome. The association between depression, anxiety, and stress in HIV-disease progression suggests that neurobiologic and neurophysiologic factors play a role in modulating HIV infection and responses to antiretroviral therapy. Individuals with HIV or AIDS may experience stressful life circumstances that can result in increased symptoms of anxiety, stress, and/or depression. Furthermore, psychological and psychiatric symptoms, which occur in individuals with HIV and AIDS, may be related to the progression of AIDS disease. This review presents evidence from the literature, as well as findings from basic investigations conducted in the authors' laboratories, demonstrating that SP may play an important role in HIV pathophysiology. SP can impact the susceptibility of immune cells to HIV infection and modulate immune cell functions in ways that may affect the course of HIV in infected individuals. Moreover, modulation of SP activity and SP receptor is being explored for its potential as a novel therapeutic approach to the treatment of some psychological and psychiatric disorders and to the design of new anti-HIV therapy.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2000

5-HT(3) and histamine H(1) receptors mediate afferent nerve sensitivity to intestinal anaphylaxis in rats.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: The mechanisms underlying brain stem activation during antigen challenge have not been resolved. Our aim was to characterize afferent nerve responses to intestinal anaphylaxis and determine the mediators involved in afferent activation. METHODS: Mesenteric afferent discharge was recorded electrophysiologically after intestinal anaphylaxis in anesthetized rats previously sensitized to chicken egg albumin (EA). RESULTS: Mesenteric afferent nerve discharge increased approximately 1 minute after luminal antigen but not bovine serum albumin (P < 0.001, EA vs. bovine serum albumin). Subsequent administration of antigen had no effect, but systemic EA evoked a marked increase in afferent discharge (P < 0. 05). Afferent responses were unrelated to intestinal motor activity, and the response to luminal antigen was attenuated by luminal anesthetic (1% lidocaine). The 5-HT(3)-receptor antagonist alosetron (30 microg. kg(-1)) and the histamine H(1)-receptor antagonist pyrilamine (5 mg. kg(-1)) markedly attenuated the response to luminal antigen; pretreatment with doxantrazole attenuated responses to both luminal and systemic antigen. CONCLUSIONS: 5-HT(3) and histamine, released from mast cells after intestinal anaphylaxis, stimulate mesenteric afferents via 5-HT(3) and histamine H(1) receptors. Information on intestinal immune status is rapidly relayed to the central nervous system and may play a role in neural reflexes and behavioral responses following activation of the immune system.

Anaphylaxis↗
PubMed2006

Neurobehavioral and immunological consequences of prenatal immune activation in rats. Influence of antipsychotics.

Increasing evidence suggests that pre- or perinatal events that influence the immune system contribute to the development of behavioral or neuropsychiatric disorders. For instance, exposure of pregnant rats to the bacterial endotoxin lipopolysaccharide (LPS) disrupts sensorimotor information processing, as assessed by the prepulse inhibition test (PPI), and also the immune function in adult offspring, which might be of particular relevance as regards schizophrenia. However, the consequences of maternal LPS exposure during pregnancy on synaptic functioning in adult offspring and, more importantly, the therapeutic opportunity to re-establish PPI and immune function have still to be demonstrated. In this work, we analyzed the consequences of prenatal LPS exposure on dopaminergic neurotransmission and presynaptic markers in adult brain areas related to PPI circuitry. In addition, we tested whether oral treatment with the typical antipsychotic drug haloperidol (HAL) could reinstate PPI performances and cytokine serum levels in six-month-old male rats with prenatal LPS exposure. Both sensory information processing deficits and immune anomalies induced by prenatal exposure to LPS were accompanied by changes in dopaminergic neurotransmission and synaptophysin expression. It is important to note that PPI disruption and serum increases in cytokines induced by prenatal LPS exposure were both reversed by HAL. Taken together, these results demonstrate the critical influence of prenatal immune events on the functioning of adult nervous and immune systems, in association with the putative role of the immune system in the development of behavior relevant to schizophrenia.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Psychoneuroimmunology.

The recent findings on the close relation between the nervous and immune systems have led to the developing of a new interdisciplinary field: psychoneuroimmunology. This review outlines the topic of the research, the limits and the future trends of psychoneuroimmunology, emphasizing the reciprocal relationship between biological and psychological processes.

Behavior↗
PubMed1996

How psychological states affect the immune system: implications for interventions in the context of HIV.

Research has established that psychological states can affect the immune system. This article discusses the psychological states associated with enhanced immune system functioning and those associated with suppressed immune functioning. Studies of psychological and behavioral interventions to boost the immune systems of people who are HIV positive, including people with AIDS, are reviewed. Suggestions are made for group interventions to enhance psychological states associated with better immune system function.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed1999

Late embryonic ritanserin exposure fails to alter normal responses to immune system stimulation in young chicks.

Prior studies in our laboratory have demonstrated that prenatal treatment with the serotonin2 (5-HT2) antagonist ritanserin is effective in blocking some of the lethal, dysmorphic, cardiovascular, and behavioral consequences of excessive direct or indirect stimulation of 5-HT2 receptors in the developing chicken. The efficacious dose range for ritanserin in these studies had very little or no effect on the above measures of toxicity when administered alone. In the present study, we extend our characterization of ritanserin's potential toxicity, or lack thereof, to include the normal behavioral and endocrine responses to immune system stimulation by the endotoxin lipopolysaccharide (LPS). LPS administration induces a syndrome collectively known as sickness behavior, manifest as altered thermoregulatory processes leading to fever, and increased serum concentrations of neuroendocrine hormones, including corticosterone. These survival-promoting responses to LPS were assessed in young chickens that had been treated with doses of ritanserin ranging from 0 to 2.7 mg/kg on embryonic day 17 (E17). When sickness behavior was assessed in 5-7-day-old chicks 1 h post-LPS injection, E17 ritanserin-treated subjects did not differ from controls. At 4-6 h post-LPS, 4-day-old chicks displayed a robust fever, and E17 ritanserin did not affect the magnitude of this response. Similarly, E17 ritanserin treatment failed to affect corticosterone concentrations 2 h post-LPS in 14-day-old chicks. Thus, ritanserin treatment during late embryogenesis, a time when it is effective against direct and indirect acting 5-HT2 agonists, failed to modify the survival promoting and beneficial interactions between the nervous, endocrine, and immune systems that are elicited following immunostimulation.

Adjuvants, Immunologic↗
PubMed2006

Lipopolysaccharide and interleukin-1beta decrease sucrose intake but do not affect expression of place preference in rats.

Immune system activation has been shown to induce decreased interest in pleasurable stimuli. Studies of this phenomenon have assessed the effect of cytokines or lipopolysaccharide (LPS) on behavior maintained by primary reinforcers, stimuli, such as palatable solutions, that effectively reinforce behavior without prior training. The studies reported in this paper replicated findings of immune system activation decreasing intake of a palatable solution and assessed the effects of immune activation on behavior maintained by a conditioned reinforcer, a stimulus paired with a the palatable solution. Using a conditioned place preference procedure, the effects of LPS and interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta) on sucrose intake (primary reinforcer) and preference for a sucrose-paired environment (conditioned reinforcer) were tested. LPS and IL-1beta decreased sucrose intake but had no effect on the expression of a sucrose-induced place preference, indicating a differential effect of immune system activation on appetitive behaviors maintained by primary and conditioned reinforcers. Finally, it was shown that a sucrose-induced place preference is sensitive to the motivational state of the subjects at the time of testing; a sucrose-induced place preference was demonstrated if rats were tested when water deprived but not if tested after free access to water.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Reversible inactivation of the dorsal vagal complex blocks lipopolysaccharide-induced social withdrawal and c-Fos expression in central autonomic nuclei.

Peripheral administration of lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a potent activator of the immune system, induces symptoms of behavioral depression, such as social withdrawal, concommitant with increases in c-Fos expression in central autonomic network nuclei. Previous studies implicated vagal visceral sensory nerves in transduction of immune-related signals relevant to for the induction of social withdrawal, a symptom of behavioral depression. Vagal sensory nerves terminate in the dorsal vagal complex (DVC) of the brainstem, a region that functions to integrate visceral signals and may also play a role in modulating arousal and affect. The objective of the current study was to determine whether the DVC contributes to immunosensory pathways driving symptoms of social withdrawal associated with LPS-induced behavioral depression, using a reversible lesion technique to temporarily inactivate the DVC. To assess the effects of DVC inactivation on LPS-induced social withdrawal and the subsequent changes in brain activation, we used behavioral assessment of social withdrawal, and analyzed c-Fos expression, a marker of neuronal activation, in the central nucleus of the amygdala (CEA), bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BST), hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus (PVN), and ventromendial preoptic area (VMPO). Two hours following intraperitoneal LPS injection, there was a significant increase in c-Fos immunoreactivity in forebrain regions in animals treated with LPS. DVC inactivation completely blocked LPS-induced social withdrawal and dramatically reduced LPS-induced Fos expression in all four forebrain regions assessed. Collectively, these findings support the idea that the DVC acts as an immune-behavior interface between the peripheral stimuli and brain areas involved in modulating social behavior.

Acute-Phase Reaction↗
PubMed2005

Applying the psychoneuroimmunology framework to nursing research.

Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI) provides a distinct perspective regarding the interrelatedness of the nervous, endocrine, and immune systems. PNI explicates the possible means by which behavior and emotion can influence immune function. Moreover, PNI explains the means by which the immune system affects the nervous system and affects psychological response. The interactions among these systems are mediated at the molecular level by cytokines and hormones produced by cells of not just the immune but also the nervous and endocrine systems. These cytokines and hormones affect endocrine and neuronal processes that, in turn, affect mood, emotions, personal perception, as well as the immune response. Analysis of the effect of cytokines and hormones at the molecular, cellular, and peripheral level is under intense investigation. Such analysis will lead to a better understanding of the connections among the psychological, neurological, and immunological systems. This understanding will provide for a holistic perspective upon which better health care can be provided, discomfort minimized, and disease prevented. The use of such a perspective in neuroscience nursing investigation can elicit novel approaches to care.

Clinical Nursing Research↗
PubMed2006

An immune response in the bumblebee, Bombus terrestris leads to increased food consumption.

BACKGROUND: The concept of a costly immune system that must be traded off against other important physiological systems is fundamental to the burgeoning field of ecological immunity. Bumblebees have become one of the central models in this field. Although previous work has demonstrated costs of immunity in numerous life history traits, estimates of the more direct costs of bumblebee immunity have yet to be made. RESULTS: Here we show a 7.5% increase in energy consumption in response to non-pathogenic immune stimulation. CONCLUSION: This increase in energy consumption along with other results suggests that immunity is one of the most important physiological systems, with other systems being sacrificed for its continuing efficiency. This increased consumption and maintained activity contrasts with the sickness-induced anorexia and reduced activity found in vertebrates.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed1993

Psychoneuroimmunology: the problem of the situatedness of illness and the conceptualization of healing.

Psychoneuroimmunology claims to go beyond narrow biological perspectives of illness to consider behavioral components as an integral part of health and disease. The conceptualization of the embodiment of behavioral dimensions and how they may be represented in terms of interaction between the central nervous system and the immune system are therefore central theoretical issues. Psychoneuroimmunology is thus an arena in which questions about the body and person in context should come to the fore. There are multiple approaches in the psychoneuroimmunological literature, including those which attempt to address in some fashion the issue of the situatedness of illness. It is argued here that the problem of the representation of situatedness is the primary axis of tension in current research and writing in psychoneuroimmunology. Diverse attempts to represent extremely complex (and non-linear) relationships between behavioral and biological dimensions of 'immune system' functioning drive a number of researchers, though they operate under disciplinary, institutional, and funding constraints in the U.S. which tend to work against the development of competing or radical models within psychoneuroimmunology itself.

Humans↗
PubMed1981

[The influence of the environment on the human immune system].

Different conditions in the human biotop and behavior are investigated and described regarding their influence on resistance and immune reactions: There is a big variety of interactions between the human biotop and immune reactions. Knowing the correlations and the dependences between both, it should be possible to arrive at a new level of optimations in human live.

Antibody Formation↗