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PubMed1997

Oral grasping of a surrogate nipple by the newborn rat.

Newborn rat pups exhibit oral appetitive behaviors when presented with an artificial nipple. These behaviors include mouthing and licking movements and expression of stereotyped oral grasp response. Caesarean-delivered pups show increased responding to the nipple over the first 5 h after birth that is independent of experience with the nipple. Mimicking maternal licking by stimulating the anogenital region of the newborn rat with a soft paintbrush increases response to the nipple. Pups tested after 24 hr of normal experience respond to the artificial nipple when tested immediately after separation from the mother. However, oral grasping of the nipple is more frequent in 1-day-old pups tested 3 or 5 hr after separation from the mother. Study of behavioral responses to the artificial nipple promises to provide information about sensory and neurochemical controls of the initial suckling episode.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1994

Individual differences in the macronutrient preference profile of outbred rats: implications for nutritional, metabolic, and pharmacologic studies.

While screening outbred male Holtzman Sprague-Dawley rats for their macronutrient (protein, carbohydrate, and fat) preferences, we noticed substantial group-to-group variation in the preference profile. This led us to analyze preference data on two hundred and seventy rats collected over a three-year period to determine whether preferences could be predicted. The results led us to conclude that observed variations in macronutrient preference profiles may be secondary to genetic heterogeneity in the outbred population. We have also shown that the outcome of the pharmacologic effects of two agents (insulin and enterostatin) on appetitive behavior will vary from animal to animal within a single group. Accordingly, researchers must be aware that the breeding history of the laboratory animal is a major factor in the outcome of the experiment and interpretation of the findings.

Animal Nutritional Physiological Phenomena↗
PubMed2001

Animal models for the study of antidepressant activity.

Three behavioral paradigms are presented for the study of the mechanism of action of antidepressant treatments and for the screening of new antidepressant drugs. The first model (acute escape deficit) exploits the decreased ability of a rat exposed to an unavoidable stress to avoid a noxious stimulus, and it allows us to evaluate the preventive activity of a treatment on the development of escape deficit. The second paradigm (chronic escape deficit) begins as acute escape deficit, that is then indefinitely sustained by the repeated administration of mild stressors; this model allows us to evaluate the efficacy of a treatment to revert the escape deficit. The third is a model of anhedonia based on the finding that exposure to repeated unavoidable stress prevents the acquisition of an appetitive behavior induced and maintained by a highly palatable food (vanilla sugar) in rats fed ad libitum; this paradigm assesses the efficacy of a treatment to restore an animal's motivation. A long-term (2 to 3 week) treatment with classical antidepressants, such as imipramine or fluoxetine, resulted in a clear-cut preventive and/or revertant activity in the three models.

Animals↗
PubMed1996

Dissociations between appetitive and consummatory responses by pharmacological manipulations of reward-relevant brain regions.

Appetitive behaviors of rats were monitored in a runway situation following central infusions of neuroactive substances into brain areas implicated in electrical self-stimulation. Microinjections of the dopamine antagonist cis-flupentixol or the cholinergic antagonist atropine into the nucleus accumbens (Acb) severely reduced the approach speed and anticipatory shuttlebox activity while leaving the consumption of the 20% sucrose reward intact. Microinjections of GABA into the ventral tegmental area (VTA), pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus (PPTg), and oral pontine reticular nucleus (PnO) also severely disrupted approach without decreasing consumption. The highest doses of atropine into the VTA, PPTg, and PnO disrupted both consummatory and approach responses equally. The results indicate that modulation of various neurochemistries along the trajectory of the self-stimulation system has stronger effects on appetitive approach than consummatory motivation. The implications for understanding appetitive-approach motivation in the brain are discussed.

Acetylcholine↗
PubMed1987

Lateral hypothalamic stimulation-produced analgesia: inferred refractory period of directly stimulated neurons and resistance to pimozide antagonism.

Electrical stimulation in lateral hypothalamic sites (ESLH) supporting appetitive behavior and reward also diminishes pain and aversion responses that are organized high in the neuraxis. A paired-pulse stimulation technique was used, in two different behavioral paradigms, to infer the absolute refractory periods of LH neurons that mediate this apparent supraspinal analgesia. In both paradigms, recovery from refractoriness--reflected by increased analgesic action--was evident at intrapair intervals of 0.8 msec and greater. This finding suggests that the overlap, if any, between first stage neurons mediating analgesia and appetitive/reward behavior may be restricted to the 'heterogeneous slow population' distinguished by Gratton and Wise. The dopamine antagonist pimozide, at doses known to diminish ESLH-induced feeding and reward (0.25 and 0.5 mg/kg), failed to affect analgesia. Thus, the dopaminergic second stage neurons deemed critical to feeding and reward may not play an important role in analgesia. Finally, ESLH-induced ameliorative action as a case of 'aversion-gating' or a dimension of classical somatosensory analgesia is discussed.

Analgesia↗
PubMed1987

Assessment of the effects of phenylpropanolamine on appetite and food intake.

Single 37.5 mg doses of phenylpropanolamine (PPA) were given on each of two separate, nonconsecutive days to each of twelve nonobese women. PPA's effects on reported appetite and food intake were compared to those of a placebo also given on two nonconsecutive days. To control for possible effects on appetitive behavior of knowledge about the drug's putative role as an appetite suppressant, the subjects were told that PPA was a nasal decongestant which was expected to affect their sensitivity to flavors. Hunger rating before eating was significantly lower on trials after PPA than on trials after placebo (carry-over effect), but the direct effect of PPA on hunger was not significant. Although food intake was 26 g less under the PPA condition (407 g) than under placebo (433 g), this difference was not significant. However, because of insufficient power, the null hypothesis could not be accepted. The true effect of PPA on intake remains inconclusive. Either more subjects must be tested at this dose or the effect must be made larger by changing the dose, in order to obtain conclusive results.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1993

Activity-induced anorexia in rats does not affect hypothalamic neuropeptide gene expression chronically.

Hypothalamic neuropeptides are thought to contribute to the pathophysiology of eating disorders. In an animal model with chronic abnormalities of energy expenditure, appetitive behavior, and body weight, without acute food restriction, we found alterations in peripheral levels of adrenocorticotropic hormone and corticosterone, but no alterations in the expression of neuropeptides genes that are known to regulate ingestive behavior and food intake acutely. Our data suggest that activation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal function in activity anorexia may not be due to increased transcription of corticotropin-releasing hormone gene, but might be related to posttranscriptional events or to other neuropeptides, such as arginine vasopressin. Furthermore, we suggest that abnormalities in neuropeptides observed in eating disorders may be caused by acute food restriction, rather than by chronic hyperactivity, anorexia, and low weight.

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone↗
PubMed1989

Egg laying in Aplysia. I. Behavioral patterns and muscle activity of freely behaving animals after selectively elicited bag cell discharges.

Aplysia egg laying is a complex sequence of head and neck movements initiated by the release of ovulatory and neuroactive hormones from the neurosecretory bag cells. This behavioral pattern is difficult to study in reduced preparations, because they do not show ovulation or egg laying behaviors. This paper describes the use of chronically implanted electrodes to elicit normal neurosecretory activity and provides an analysis of egg laying behaviors and the underlying muscle activity in intact, freely behaving A. californica and A. brasiliana. 1. Bag cell discharges elicited with a fine wire electrode implanted in the connective tissue sheath above the cell bodies were typically without noxious behavioral side effects. 2. Following selectively elicited bag cell discharges, egg laying consisted of four rhythmic head and neck movements that were separated functionally into appetitive behaviors ('waves' and 'undulations') used to explore and prepare the substrate and consummatory behaviors ('weaves' and 'tamps') used to distribute and attach the egg string. The amount of time an animal performed consummatory behaviors was positively related to the amount of eggs deposited. By contrast, the appetitive phase of egg laying was independent of the size of the egg mass. 3. The individual behaviors and their temporal sequence were similar following selectively elicited bag cell discharges, spontaneous discharges of animals with implanted electrodes and during normal egg laying of unoperated animals. 4. Three longitudinal muscle systems occurred within the head and neck. Following a selectively elicited bag cell discharge, spatially and temporally coordinated patterns of EJP bursts of different durations were recorded chronically from each muscle group. These EJP patterns were characteristic for specific head and neck movements used in appetitive and consummatory egg laying behaviors.

Animals↗
PubMed1979

Reinforcement with intragastric infusions of ethanol: blocking effect of FLA 57.

Suppression of oral intake of ethanol by FLA 57 has been reported for rats and was attributed to an inhibition of dopamine beta-hydroxylase. We have demonstrated the ability of FLA 57 (50 mg/kg, IP) to suppress bar-pressing for intragastric (IG) delivery of doses of ethanol (25 mg/kg). This indicates that the effect on oral intake of ethanol may not be attributed to a taste factor, e.g., a decreased palatability of the ethanol solution. The same dose of FLA 57 did not suppress responding for IG doses of sweet milk. Thus, there was not an impairment of appetitive behavior in general through some nonspecific depressant or toxic action. Furthermore, the primary reinforcing action of ethanol, when used to establish a buzzer as a conditioned reinforcer through repeated pairings, was blocked if FLA 57 was given before pairings. This was evidenced by a failure of such rats to bar-press above the baseline level in a later test of conditioned reinforcement, which contrasted with the increased responding seen for rats receiving saline instead of FLA 57 before ethanol. These data support the previous findings on oral ethanol and confirm that FLA 57 can impair the mechanism by which ethanol produces positive reinforcement in rats.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

The effect of REM sleep deprivation on motivation for food reward.

Prolonged sleep deprivation in rats produces a characteristic syndrome consisting of an increase in food intake yet a decrease in weight. Moreover, the increase in food intake generally precedes the weight loss, suggesting that sleep deprivation may affect appetitive behaviors. Using the multiple platform method to produce rapid eye movement (REM) sleep deprivation, we investigated the effect of REM sleep deprivation (REMSD) on motivation for food reward utilizing food-reinforced operant tasks. In acquisition or maintenance of an operant task, REM sleep-deprived rats, with or without simultaneous food restriction, decreased responding for sucrose pellet reward in comparison to controls, despite the fact that all REM sleep-deprived rats lost weight. Furthermore, the overall response deficit of the REM sleep-deprived rats was due to a within-session decline in responding. REM sleep-deprived rats showed evidence of understanding the contingency of the task comparable to controls throughout deprivation period, suggesting that the decrements in responding were not primarily related to deficits in learning or memory. Rather, REM sleep deprivation appears to alter systems involved in motivational processes, reward, and/or attention.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Physiology of female sexual function: animal models.

INTRODUCTION: Data concerning the physiology of desire, arousal, and orgasm in women are limited because of ethical constraints. Aim. To gain knowledge of physiology of female sexual function through animal models. METHODS: To provide state-of-the-art knowledge concerning female sexual function in animal models, representing the opinions of seven experts from five countries developed in a consensus process over a 2-year period. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Expert opinion was based on the grading of evidence-based medical literature, widespread internal committee discussion, public presentation, and debate. RESULTS: Sexual desire may be considered as the presence of desire for, and fantasy about, sexual activity. Desire in animals can be inferred from certain appetitive behaviors that occur during copulation and from certain unconditioned copulatory measures. Proceptive behaviors are dependent in part on estrogen, progesterone, and drugs that bind to D1 dopamine receptors, adrenergic receptors, oxytocin receptors, opioid receptors, or gamma-amino butyric acid receptors. Peripheral arousal states are dependent on regulation of genital smooth muscle tone. Multiple neurotransmitters/mediators are involved including adrenergic, and nonadrenergic, noncholinergic agents such as vasoactive intestinal polypeptide, nitric oxide, neuropeptide Y, calcitonin gene-related peptide, and substance P. Sex steroid hormones, estrogens and androgens, are critical for structure and function of genital tissues including modulation of genital blood flow, lubrication, neurotransmitter function, smooth muscle contractility, mucification, and sex steroid receptor expression in genital tissues. Orgasm may be investigated by urethrogenital (UG) reflex, in which genital stimulation results in rhythmic contractions of striated perineal muscles and contractions of vagina, anus, and uterine smooth muscle. The UG reflex is generated by a multisegmental spinal pattern generator involving the coordination of sympathetic, parasympathetic, and somatic efferents innervating the genital organs. Serotonin and dopamine may modulate UG reflex activity. CONCLUSIONS: More research is needed in animal models in the physiology of female sexual function.

Anal Canal↗
PubMed2004

Sardinian alcohol-preferring rats show low 5-HT extraneuronal levels in the mPFC and no habituation in monoaminergic response to repeated ethanol consumption in the NAcS.

Sardinian ethanol-preferring (sP), non-preferring (sNP), and Wistar rats show similar dopaminergic response to vanilla sugar consumption in nucleus accumbens shell (NAcS) and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), and similarly learn a vanilla sugar-sustained appetitive behavior. In this study we investigated whether in satiated sP, sNP, and Wistar rats vanilla sugar would also elicit a serotonergic response in NAcS and mPFC, and whether in these areas voluntary ethanol consumption would elicit dopaminergic and/or serotoninergic responses. In the NAcS, all rats showed similar serotonin increases in response to the two meals and similar development of rapid habituation. In the mPFC, Wistar and sNP rats showed similar serotonin increases after two vanilla sugar meals, while sP rats, which had low serotonin basal levels, did not show a serotonergic response. When presented with a 10% ethanol solution, Wistar and sP rats rapidly consumed it, while sNP rats did not. In the NAcS, Wistar and sP rats presented dopamine and serotonin increases in response to ethanol. However, while Wistar rats showed habituation in their response, sP rats did not. In the mPFC, ethanol induced similar dopamine increases in Wistar and sP rats; serotonin increases were observed only in Wistar rats. In conclusion, all three lines showed increased serotonin release in response to palatable food, but they profoundly differed in their response to ethanol. In fact, only Wistar and sP rats drank ethanol, Wistar rats showed a monoaminergic response similar to that obtained after palatable food, while sP rats did not develop habituation, suggesting that they perceived ethanol as a more relevant stimulus.

Alcohol Drinking↗
PubMed1994

Food-induced arousal and nonassociative learning in honeybees: dependence of sensitization on the application site and duration of food stimulation.

Stimulus-induced arousal (sensitization) of a component of appetitive behavior in honeybees, the proboscis extension reflex (PER), was used to investigate different aspects of nonassociative memory. The sensitizing stimulus (sucrose solution) was applied to one antenna, as a compound to antenna and proboscis, and to the proboscis. Stimulus duration was either 1 or 3 s. Sensitization was evaluated by monitoring PER toward an odor before (pretest) and after (test) application of the sensitizing stimulus. All responses were quantified by recording from muscle M17 which represents the motor program of PER. Data were analyzed by determining (1) the response probability to the odor and (2) the response strength by determining the number of M17-spikes and the percentage of licking bees per trial. The analysis of the response probability led to two main results: the proportion of animals responding to the test odor depended on stimulus site, and, dependent on stimulus site, a longer application of the sensitizing stimulus resulted in different sensitization rates. The strength of the sensitized response, however, did not correspond to the probability, with which it was elicited, but rather to the strength of the response to the sensitizing stimulus itself. Furthermore, the three groups were not equally affected by the short and long stimulation. The analysis of the proportion of animals licking during test confirmed the data obtained using the number of muscle spikes as a measure of response strength. These results suggest an internal evaluation of the sensitizing stimulus depending on its quality and intensity. The differential effects after antennal and proboscis stimulation may be realized via an arousal system which has two independent functions, a permissive one modulating response probability and one modulating response strength. The permissive function of arousal may be regulated via an intervening inhibitory system whose activation critically depends on the functional significance of the arousing stimulus. The content of this short-term form of memory may be interpreted as an expectation for food which is regulated according to experienced consequences.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Dopamine D(2)-like receptor binding in the brain of male Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica).

Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica) have been used extensively to study appetitive behaviors. However, little is known about the appetitive-relevant neurochemical systems in this species. The present investigation examined the distribution of D(2)-like dopamine receptors in the quail brain. [(3)H]Spiperone was incubated in brain tissue homogenates and non-specific binding was defined using (-)-sulpiride. Scatchard analysis of whole brain without cerebellum and forebrain alone indicated approximate K(d)'s of 0.08 and 0.04 nM, respectively. In addition, the preferential D(3) agonist (+/-)-2-dipropylamino-7-hydroxy-1,2,3, 4-tetrahydronaphthalene hydrobromide (7-OH-DPAT) did not displace [(3)H]spiperone binding in quail forebrain. Finally, regional analysis showed that the highest densities of D(2)-like receptors were located in the forebrain. Overall, these results indicate that there is some conservation of dopaminergic mechanisms between aves and mammals. Thus, Japanese quail may be useful for examining the neuropharmacological mechanisms of dopaminergic stimulant drugs that work via D(2)-like receptor activation.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Associative processes in addiction and reward. The role of amygdala-ventral striatal subsystems.

Only recently have the functional implications of the organization of the ventral striatum, amygdala, and related limbic-cortical structures, and their neuroanatomical interactions begun to be clarified. Processes of activation and reward have long been associated with the NAcc and its dopamine innervation, but the precise relationships between these constructs have remained elusive. We have sought to enrich our understanding of the special role of the ventral striatum in coordinating the contribution of different functional subsystems to confer flexibility, as well as coherence and vigor, to goal-directed behavior, through different forms of associative learning. Such appetitive behavior comprises many subcomponents, some of which we have isolated in these experiments to reveal that, not surprisingly, the mechanisms by which an animal sequences responding to reach a goal are complex. The data reveal how the different components, pavlovian approach (or sign-tracking), conditioned reinforcement (whereby pavlovian stimuli control goal-directed action), and also more general response-invigorating processes (often called "activation," "stress," or "drive") may be integrated within the ventral striatum through convergent interactions of the amygdala, other limbic cortical structures, and the mesolimbic dopamine system to produce coherent behavior. The position is probably not far different when considering aversively motivated behavior. Although it may be necessary to employ simplified, even abstract, paradigms for isolating these mechanisms, their concerted action can readily be appreciated in an adaptive, functional setting, such as the responding by rats for intravenous cocaine under a second-order schedule of reinforcement. Here, the interactions of primary reinforcement, psychomotor activation, pavlovian conditioning, and the control that drug cues exert over the integrated drug-seeking response can be seen to operate both serially and concurrently. The power of our analytic techniques for understanding complex motivated behavior has been evident for some time. However, the crucial point is that we are now able to map these components with increasing certainty onto discrete amygdaloid, and other limbic cortical-ventral striatal subsystems. The neural dissection of these mechanisms also serves an important theoretical purpose in helping to validate the various hypothetical constructs and further developing theory. Major challenges remain, not the least of which is an understanding of the operation of the ventral striatum together with its dopaminergic innervation and its interactions with the basolateral amygdala, hippocampal formation, and prefrontal cortex at a more mechanistic, neuronal level.

Amygdala↗
PubMed1983

Facilitation of instrumental behavior by a Pavlovian appetitive conditioned stimulus.

Three experiments examined appetitive Pavlovian-instrumental interactions by presenting separately trained conditioned stimuli (CSs) during reinforced instrumental responding in rabbits. Intra-oral reinforcement was used to minimize interference from peripheral responses such as magazine approach. In experiment 1, the rabbits were first trained to perform an instrumental head-raising response for sucrose reward. A conditioned jaw movement response was then established to a 2-sec CS by pairing it with sucrose; a control stimulus was unpaired with sucrose. Instrumental responding maintained by a variable-interval 40-sec schedule was enhanced during 10-sec presentations of the paired, but not the unpaired, CS. Responding on a variable-ratio 15 schedule was unaffected except on trials on which the pre-CS baseline response rate was low; in such cases the paired CS caused a long-lasting acceleration of responding. Noncontingent presentation of the sucrose reinforcer itself briefly suppressed responding but had no long-term effect. In Experiment 2, a CS that had been conditioned at a 10-sec duration produced the same pattern of effects as in the first study, indicating that facilitation resulted from CS presentation rather than from the frustrative effects of non-reinforcement of the CS. In Experiment 3 an inhibitory CS blocked facilitation by the excitatory CS but did not itself affect instrumental responding. These results support the view that Pavlovian processes play a positive role in instrumental performance and suggest that previous findings of suppression by a short-duration CS reflect peripheral interference. The dependence of facilitation on the baseline level of responding is discussed in terms of associative and motivational theories of Pavlovian mediation.

Animals↗
PubMed1993

[Work capacity of miners in clearing stopes of coal mines of the Donets Basin, working at normal and high temperatures].

Structure of labour activity in miners is based on adequate adaptive behavioral reactions. It is demonstrated by avoidance and appetitive behavior as well as slow work rate in faces with high environmental temperatures. Natural adaptive behavior however do not prevent miners from functional overload leading to low efficacy and capacity for work. Duration of work in such conditions must be shortened. Which was recommended as prophylaxis of fatigue and overheating in miners.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed2005

The role of previous exposure in the appetitive and consummatory effects of orexigenic neuropeptides.

The ingestion of foods is comprised of two distinct phases of behavior: appetitive and consummatory. While most food intake paradigms include both phases, the intraoral intake test emphasizes the stereotyped consummatory-phase by infusing a liquid food directly into the oral cavity. Several hypothalamic peptides have been shown to increase intake of chow in standard food intake paradigms and the current experiments sought to test whether these peptides would increase food intake in the intraoral intake paradigm. NPY, melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH) and orexin-A were infused into the third ventricle (i3vt) in a counterbalanced latin-square design just prior to rats getting 0.1M sucrose solution infused via indwelling intraoral catheters and compared it to intake on bottle tests with access to the same sucrose solution. On the first day, each peptide increased intraoral intake relative to saline in the between-subjects comparison. Moreover, intake of sucrose following i3vt saline increased as a function of training. By the final day of the experiment, rats receiving saline consumed as much sucrose as rats receiving NPY, MCH, or orexin-A. This finding was conceptually replicated in the second experiment in which rats drank sucrose freely from a bottle on the home cage. A third experiment directly assessed the role of previous exposure in the sucrose intake induced by NPY. Those results confirm that repeated exposure to sucrose increases baseline intake and attenuates the hyperphagic effect of NPY. These results are consistent with two conclusions: (1) NPY, MCH, and orexin-A increase both appetitive and consummatory-phase ingestive behaviors on initial exposures; (2) repeated training interacts with the effects of these orexigenic peptides.

Administration, Oral↗