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PubMed1988

Menstrual cycle phase-related changes in appetite in patients with premenstrual syndrome and in control subjects.

Menstrual cycle phase-dependent changes in appetite in women with premenstrual syndrome has not thus far been systematically demonstrated. In this study of 21 patients with premenstrual syndrome and 13 control subjects, there were significant increases in appetite in both groups, with a greater effect of menstrual cycle phase on appetite in the patients. Further, the premenstrual increase in appetite was highly correlated with self-ratings of mood (particularly depression) in the patients only. The authors discuss these findings with respect to endocrine influences on appetite regulation and potential implications for investigation of atypical depression.

Adult↗

PubMed2001

Bitter substances suppress afferent responses to an appetitive mixture: evidence for peripheral integration of chemosensory stimuli.

The processes that lead from detection of chemicals, transduction, and coding with the appropriate message to initiate ingestion of a palatable meal or to reject a potentially noxious substance are poorly understood in vertebrates owing to the complex organization of the taste system. As a first step in elucidating the cellular basis of the behavioral differences elicited by appetitive stimuli and bitter compounds, we recorded from the afferent nerves conveying peripheral chemosensory information to the CNS in the head of the leech, Hirudo medicinalis. Superfusion of the chemosensory region of the lip of Hirudo with a mixture of NaCl (150 mM) and arginine (1 mM), an appetitive solution that elicits ingestion, increased the neuronal activity in the afferent cephalic nerves, for example (Zhang X, Wilson RJ, Li Y, Kleinhaus AL. 2000. Chemical and thermal stimuli have short-lived effects on the Retzius cell in the medicinal leech. J Neurobiol 43:304-311.). In the present paper we show that superfusing the lip with quinine or denatonium reduced the basal neural activity in the afferents. Furthermore, these bitter substances in the appetitive solution counteracted the increased activity the appetitive solution evoked in the cephalic nerves. Thus, the neural activity evoked by the application of appetitive and aversive stimuli to the chemosensory area of the lip paralleled the opposite behavioral responses to the same chemicals. The results suggest that individual leech taste cells possess receptors for both types of stimuli. Therefore, the leech may be a good model system in which to study peripheral taste events in cells that may possess multiple receptors and transduction mechanisms that interact to integrate information.

Action Potentials↗

PubMed1997

Independent effects of palatability and within-meal pauses on intake and appetite ratings in human volunteers.

The effects of the introduction of timed pauses within meals and palatability on food intake and changes in rated appetite during a meal were assessed in three experiments in which volunteers ate a lunch of pasta with a tomato sauce. Eating was monitored using a disguised electronic balance attached to a micro-computer, which also allowed the introduction of timed pauses within meals. In the first experiment, 16 subjects were tested with both a bland and palatable food (with 0.27% oregano), with eating uninterrupted or with pauses after every 50 g consumed during which appetite ratings were completed. Both the addition of oregano and the introduction of regular within-meal pauses enhanced overall intake. Rated hunger increased in the early stages of eating the palatable food in the interrupted condition, and then declined, whereas hunger declined throughout with the bland food. Similarly, the linear function relating intake to time in the uninterrupted condition was greater with the palatable food. In the second experiment, nine subjects ate the palatable food with no pauses within meals, with 30-second pauses with appetite ratings or with 30-second pauses in a non-appetite task. Intake was greater in both pause conditions than when eating was uninterrupted. In Experiment 3, the effect of pause duration was investigated in a further 16 subjects, with either no pause or a pause of 5, 30 or 60 seconds. Subjects ate more in all pause conditions than with no pauses, while ratings of hunger and fullness suggested that subjects were less satisfied at the end of the meal with longer pauses. These data confirm previous work which suggests that palatability exerts its effect by stimulating appetite and eating rate, but also suggest that the introduction of pauses within meals enhances intake as well, contradicting the idea that pausing within meals should reduce intake by allowing more time for post-ingestive satiety to develop.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1998

Relative contributions of intestinal, gastric, oro-sensory influences and information to changes in appetite induced by the same liquid meal.

To investigate the contribution of oral, gastric and intestinal factors in the control of appetitc, 425 ml (400 kcal) tomato soup was administered either orally, intragastrically (covertly and overtly) or intraduodenally (overtly) to nine healthy, fasted, male volunteers. Ratings of fullness, hunger and desire to eat were recorded over a period of 2 h and gastric emptying was measured after soup fed orally and intragastrically. Infusion of the soup into the small intestine at a rate commensurate with normal gastric emptying exerted no significant suppression of ratings of hunger and desire to eat and no significant production of fullness. Covert, intragastric infusion of the same soup suppressed appetite and this suppression was increased when the subjects were informed of the nature of the infusion, but there were no differences in gastric emptying profiles between covert and overt intragastric infusions of soup. Oral administration of the soup produced the greatest suppression of appetite compared with other conditions and also generated a slower rate of gastric emptying compared with both intragastric soup infusions. Strong correlations were observed between appetite ratings and both gastric and intestinal contents following intragastric infusions of the soup meal and these were enhanced following oral administration of soup. These results indicate how information, orosensory, gastric and intestinal factors can interact to elicit optimal expression of fullness and suppression of hunger. Specifically, the data not only demonstrate how the influence of gastric distension appears to overwhelm any direct influence of intestinal chemostimulation on appetite and how information modulates this effect, but the data also support an important role in appetite suppression for psychophysiological mechanisms stimulated by orosensory mechanisms.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2002

An appropriate tool for appetite testing and evaluation in young children in Benin.

Appetite measurements were performed in 109 Beninese children aged 18-30 months to develop a tool for appetite evaluation in young children in nutritional intervention programmes. Two test foods were identified as appropriate for these children: a maize porridge (aklui) and rice (riz-au-gras). Ad libitum intakes of the foods served after an overnight fast according to a standardized offering procedure were measured on 3 days. The children's habitual intakes were measured during 3 consecutive days not overlapping with the days when the test meals were provided. Energy intake from the test foods was comparable to breakfast energy intake which was 0.8-1.0 MJ, representing 21% of total daily energy intake. Energy intake from aklui was significantly correlated with daily intake (r=0.41, n=38, p<0.05) and with energy intake from breakfast (r=0.52, p<0.01). Correlations concerning riz-au-gras were less pronounced and non-significant. Reproducibility (as coefficient of variation) of the appetite test as calculated from the triplicate measurements was 40% for aklui and 25% for riz-au-gras. This reproducibility is better than that of the habitual breakfast intake (43-45%). In conclusion, the appetite test used in our studies can be considered as an appropriate tool in appetite evaluations.

Appetite↗

PubMed1985

Modulation of salt appetite by lateral ventricular infusions of angiotensin II and carbachol during sodium depletion.

Infusions of angiotensin II (AII) or carbachol (CBC) into the lateral ventricles of rats which had been depleted of sodium 4 h previously with either furosemide or polyethylene glycol produced significant changes in salt appetite and sodium and water balances relative to rats infused with saline vehicle. Infusions of AII enhanced the salt appetite and led to rapid retention of both sodium and water. Infusions of CBC abolished the salt appetite and consequently did not produce any increase in sodium balance. Water intake was greater in both AII- and CBC-infused than in vehicle-infused rats and water balances increased during CBC infusion, causing severe dilution of plasma osmolality, sodium and potassium concentrations. Carbachol thus suppressed salt appetite, despite a considerable worsening of the condition of body sodium in these hypovolemic animals. Angiotensin II facilitated the appetite and this enhancement was not secondary to any natriuresis produced by AII infusions.

Angiotensin II↗

PubMed1988

Elevated salt appetite and brain binding of angiotensin II in mineralocorticoid-treated rats.

Angiotensin II (Ang II) and aldosterone levels increase with sodium deficiency, promoting sodium conservation and arousing a salt appetite in rats. The mechanism(s), by which these two hormones interact to produce salt appetite is not known. The experiments reported here tested the possibility that increased mineralocorticoids change the number and/or affinity of Ang receptors in the brain. Rats were given a series of deoxycorticosterone acetate (DOCA) injections (500 micrograms/day, s.c., for 4 days) which are known to produce a salt appetite when given in conjunction with an intracerebroventricular injection of Ang. The binding of 125I-Ang II to membranes prepared from the septal-anteroventral third ventricular region was then examined. DOCA treatment resulted in a significant increase in the number of Ang binding sites (Bmax) with no change in binding affinity (Kd). The binding of 125I-Ang II was then investigated in membranes prepared from 12 other brain regions as well as the pituitary and adrenal gland, showing that the increase in binding capacity occurred in only a few specific brain regions. A third experiment verified that the DOCA treatment used here was sufficient to arouse a salt appetite when combined with a single intracerebroventricular injection of Ang II. The mechanism that underlies the production of salt appetite by aldosterone and Ang II may at least partially consist of mineralocorticoid-induced increases in the number of Ang receptors in discrete brain regions.

Angiotensin II↗

PubMed1990

Inhibition of salt appetite in the rat following injection of tachykinins into the medial amygdala.

The present study investigated the sensitivity of the medial region of the amygdala to the antinatriorexic action in the rat of the tachykinins eledoisin, substance P, neurokinin A and [Asp5,6, MePhe8] substance P(5-11) (also referred to as amino-senktide; NH2-SENK), which is a highly selective agonist for NK-3 receptors. The results obtained show that only the potent NK-3 agonists eledoisin and NH2-SENK inhibit salt appetite when injected into the medial region of the amygdala. Eledoisin and NH2-SENK inhibited salt appetite induced by sodium depletion, that has been proven to be governed by the synergism of angiotensin and aldosterone. They inhibited also salt appetite evoked by central renin injection, that is due to production of angiotensin II. On the other hand, eledoisin and NH2-SENK did not inhibit salt appetite evoked by subcutaneous deoxycorticosterone treatment. These findings suggest that the medial region of the amygdala is a site of action for the antinatriorexic effect of tachykinins and that their action at this site is mediated by NK-3 receptors. Moreover, our results show that in the medial amygdala, the antinatriorexic action of tachykinins appears to be directed toward the angiotensinergic component of the neural mechanism for salt appetite.

Amygdala↗

PubMed1989

The early ontogeny of sodium appetite in spontaneously hypertensive vs. normotensive rats.

Rats of various strains differ widely in their appetite for sodium. For example, the Okamoto-Aoki spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHR) exhibits a much greater salt appetite than its normotensive control strains. Developmental observations of salt appetite in this strain have been collected only for rats at or above weanling age. In this experiment, the salt appetite of the SHR was compared with that of normotensive Sprague-Dawley and Wistar-Kyoto rats, at 3, 6 and 12 days after birth. The results show that the increased salt appetite of the SHR is a fundamental behavioral trait that appears very early in life. This observation is consistent with a defective central angiotensin system in SHR rats.

Aging↗

PubMed1996

Role of peripheral angiotensin in salt appetite of the sodium-deplete rat.

Lines of evidence indicate that the importance of peripherally derived angiotensin II as a stimulus for salt appetite in rats has been underestimated. First, a series of observations is consistent with the idea that peripherally derived angiotensin acts at circumventricular organs of the brain to stimulate salt appetite following sodium depletion. Second, recent experiments show that depletion-induced salt appetite is abolished by the i.v. infusion of converting-enzyme inhibitor (captopril) at a dose that totally prevents the formation of angiotensin II within the peripheral circulation. This same dose of converting-enzyme inhibitor does not penetrate the blood-brain barrier to affect the actions of centrally derived angiotensin. These findings suggest that angiotensin II of peripheral origin is critical for the expression of salt appetite following extracellular fluid depletions. Together, these two lines of evidence suggest that the role of circulating angiotensin II in the stimulation of salt appetite in the rat should be re-examined.

Angiotensin II↗

PubMed1996

Central inhibition of salt appetite by oxytocin in rats.

Considerable evidence indicates an important role of hormones in the stimulation of fluid consumption. For example, angiotensin II (Ang II), together with afferent neural input from cardiovascular baroreceptors, is well known to stimulate thirst and NaCl intake in rats. Conversely, numerous studies have demonstrated that central oxytocin (OT) provides a stimulus for inhibition of salt appetite. The latter conclusion is supported by the following observations in rats: (a) intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) injection of OT inhibits salt appetite stimulated by subcutaneous colloid; (b) treatments that inhibit NaCl intake, such as acute hyperosmolality, stimulate pituitary secretion of OT (which is correlated with central release of OT in these studies), whereas treatments that decrease OT secretion, such as systemic injection of deoxycorticosterone and dietary sodium deprivation, potentiate Ang-II-induced NaCl intake; (c) systemic ethanol administration inhibits OT secretion and enhances Ang-II-induced salt appetite; (d) naloxone, which augments stimulated OT secretion, inhibits NaCl appetite induced by colloid treatment, an effect that is abolished by i.c.v. pretreatment with an OT receptor antagonist; and (e) destruction of central neurons bearing OT receptors increases Ang II-induced salt appetite. By mediating the inhibition of NaCl intake in rats, central OT complements the known peripheral effects of OT to facilitate renal sodium excretion.

Animals↗

PubMed2004

Relationships of ratings of appetite to food intake in healthy older men and women.

The aim of this study was to determine how rated appetite relates to the amount eaten in a meal in healthy older people. On two study days, 32 healthy older men (n = 16) and women (n = 16) aged 65-85 years, recruited by advertisement, consumed a standardised breakfast and 4 h later were offered lunch from which they could eat freely. Foods eaten at lunch were weighed and energy intake calculated from nutrient composition data. Appetite was assessed at baseline and at 30-min intervals between meals by line ratings of hunger, fullness, nausea and how much could be eaten. The optimum time for correlations both among appetite ratings and between appetite and lunch intake was just before the lunch. Mean coefficients of repeatability (21-38 mm) and correlation coefficients (0.67-0.71) at that point in time were similar to those reported previously in young adults. Thus, in older and well as young adults, the size of a meal is most closely related to rated appetite just before the meal.

Aged↗

PubMed2026

Effects of intensive lifestyle interventions with calorie-carbohydrate-restricted diet versus time-restricted eating on appetite and binge eating in type 2 diabetes: A randomized controlled trial.

The impact of intensive lifestyle interventions on appetite regulation and binge eating in individuals with type 2 diabetes (T2D) remains unclear. This study evaluated the effects of combined lifestyle interventions on appetite responses and binge eating in overweight or obese adults with T2D. In a randomized trial, 120 participants with T2D were allocated to three groups (n = 40 each): (1) Calorie-carbohydrate restriction (CCR), (2) Time-restricted eating with CCR (TRE + CCR), or (3) Control. Intervention groups received structured exercise and behavioral education based on the Information-Motivation-Behavioral Skills model. Appetite perceptions (hunger, satiety, desire to eat, and prospective food consumption) and binge eating (Binge Eating Scale; BES and objective binge episodes) were evaluated at baseline, week 12, and week 24 using linear mixed models. Both CCR and TRE + CCR significantly improved subjective appetite compared with the control group at 12 and 24 weeks (all p < 0.01). At 24 weeks, hunger decreased by -24.1 mm (95% CI: -35.8, -12.5) in the CCR group and -32.7 mm (95% CI: -44.2, -21.3) in the TRE + CCR group. Satiety also increased by 21.7 mm (95% CI: 9.46, 33.9) and 29.4 mm (95% CI: 17.4, 41.4), respectively. Significant reductions were observed for desire to eat and prospective food consumption. In contrast, changes in BES and objective binge episodes were not significantly different between groups at any time point. No significant differences were detected between the CCR and the TRE + CCR groups. Intensive lifestyle interventions incorporating CCR or TRE + CCR effectively reduced appetite in adults with T2D but did not significantly affect binge eating. Future research should target individuals with higher baseline BES scores to clarify potential benefits for binge eating behavior.

Humans↗

PubMed2006

Induction and expression of salt appetite: effects on Fos expression in nucleus accumbens.

Sodium depletion is a strong natural motivator that creates a pronounced sodium appetite and has been shown to activate neural regions associated with fluid and sodium balance. However, it is not known whether sodium appetite affects the mesolimbic circuitry associated with reward motivation. The present studies examined expression of the immediate early gene Fos in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) as a marker of neuronal activation following the induction and expression of furosemide-induced sodium appetite. During sodium appetite expression, sham-drinking and normal drinking were used to dissociate effects of NaCl taste stimulation from the repletion that follows absorption of sodium. These studies revealed that the combination of NaCl taste stimulation and persistent sodium depletion experienced by sham-drinking animals dramatically activates the NAc, while neither induction nor expression of sodium appetite alone is sufficient to increase Fos expression in this region. Results are discussed in terms of current theories of reward motivation.

Animals↗

PubMed2005

Appetite: measurement and manipulation misgivings.

Humans appear to have a genotype that permits, or even encourages, an energy intake that is greater than energy expenditure when food is available. This was functional throughout most of human evolution but is less so in the current environment of inexpensive, palatable, and readily available foods. To achieve dietary goals of weight loss or maintenance, attempts have been made to influence appetitive sensations through the manipulation of the physical properties of foods, their composition, or their pattern of consumption. This has led to limited success, in part, because measurement of appetitive sensations is difficult but, more fundamentally, because the association between appetite and food choice or intake is not robust. This article critically reviews the most common methods for assessment of appetite and the effects of selected food constituents on appetitive sensations. Translation of current knowledge to dietetic practice must be made cautiously.

Appetite Regulation↗

PubMed2005

Effects of sibutramine on the appetitive and consummatory aspects of feeding in non-human primates.

This study examined how sibutramine (0.06-4.0 mg/kg, i.m.), a clinically effective weight-loss medication which increases extracellular serotonin and norepinephrine levels, affected the appetitive and consummatory aspects of feeding of non-human primates. The effects were compared to the effects of the positive control dexfenfluramine (2.0-6.0 mg/kg, p.o.), which primarily increases extracellular serotonin levels. Baboons had access to food 24 h each day, but they had to complete a two-phase operant procedure in order to eat. Responding on one lever during a 30-min appetitive phase was required before animals could start a consumption phase, where responding on another lever led to food delivery, i.e., a meal. Responding during the appetitive phase resulted in presentations of food-related stimuli only. Sibutramine increased the latency to the first meal of the session in females, and decreased consummatory behavior without affecting other appetitive behavior in males and females. In contrast, dexfenfluramine, increased the latency to the first meal of the session, and decreased both appetitive and consummatory behavior in males and females. The behavioral mechanism by which sibutramine decreases food intake is distinct from other anorectic drugs, including dexfenfluramine, that have been tested in this paradigm.

Animals↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Effects of SFO lesions on salt appetite during multiple sodium depletions.

A depletion of sodium may increase sodium intake by increasing the synthesis of angiotensin (ANG) II in the blood and by stimulating ANG II receptors in the subfornical organ (SFO) of the rat. Lesions of SFO reportedly reduce these intakes. The present experiments tested the effects of SFO lesions on salt appetite after three successive depletions. After a furosemide-induced natriuresis, Long-Evans rats had free access to water- and sodium-deficient diet for 22 h. Water and 0.3 M NaCl were given for 2 h, and then the rats received regular chow, water, and 0.3 M NaCl until the next injection 5 or 7 days later. SFO lesions reduced water intake 1-2 h after each furosemide injection but not during the overnight periods. The lesions did not affect salt appetite the next day, 24-26 h after furosemide, but they did prevent the expected increase in the chronic daily 0.3 M NaCl intake after repeated depletions. The second experiment was similar to the first except that three subcutaneous injections of 100 mg/kg captopril were given at 1, 18, and 20 h after furosemide for the second depletion only. After the first depletion, the results were similar to those of the same condition of the first experiment. After the second depletion, captopril greatly reduced water intake and salt appetite in all rats including those with SFO lesions. Thus, we found that the lesion reduced chronic intake, but we did not replicate results showing large effects of SFO lesions on acute salt appetite. This residual acute appetite after SFO lesion remains dependent on the synthesis of ANG II.

Angiotensin II↗

PubMed2003

Exogenous adrenocorticotrophic hormone does not elicit a salt appetite in growing pigs.

In rodents, rabbits, and sheep, exogenous adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) leads to a marked increase in sodium appetite. It has been suggested that if pigs show a similar response to stress, an appetite for salt could increase their attraction to blood and contribute to the development of tail biting. The aim of this study was to examine the effects of ACTH on salt appetite in growing pigs. Individually housed Yorkshire pigs (45 kg) were divided into three groups of four. Group 1 had free access to water, 0.5 M NaCl, and 0.5 M KCl solutions; Group 2 to water, 0.5, and 0.25 M NaCl solutions; Group 3 to water, 0.25, and 0.125 M NaCl solutions. Intramuscular injection of long-acting synthetic ACTH (50 IU twice daily for 5 days) did not elicit increases in intakes of any of the available salt solutions compared to pretreatment intakes. However, there was a 1.6-fold increase in both water and feed intake during ACTH treatment. ACTH treatment also stimulated significant increases in salivary cortisol concentrations. Although increases in salivary cortisol concentrations and in water and feed intake indicate that there were physiological responses to the treatment, exogenous ACTH given for 5 days did not elicit a sodium appetite in growing pigs. These findings do not support the notion that a stress-induced salt appetite serves as an underlying mechanism for tail biting.

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone↗