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PubMedDate not supplied

The future of theory-of-mind research: understanding motivational states, the role of language, and real-world consequences.

Suggestions are made for future investigation of theory-of-mind development. There needs to be (1) more focus on the development of understanding of desire and intention; (2) research on the role of language in theory-of-mind development that integrates representational-development and social-interaction views; and (3) investigation of the real-world consequences of children's developing understanding of belief, desire, and intention.

Child↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Executive accounts of theory-of-mind development.

Two varieties of executive theories may be distinguished: emergence accounts and expression accounts. The meta-analytic findings are fully consistent with emergence accounts of theory of mind and do not entirely rule out expression accounts.

Child↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Reasoning about beliefs: a human specialization?

A recent meta-analysis performed by Wellman, Cross, and Watson clears the air surrounding young children's performance on tests of false belief by showing that it is highly likely that there is some type of conceptual development between 3 and 5 years of age that supports improved task performance. The data concerning the evolutionary origin of these abilities, however, is considerably less clear. Nonetheless, there is some reason to suspect that theory of mind is unique to our species, and that its original function was to provide a more abstract level of describing ancient behavioral patterns (such as deception, reconciliation, and gaze following)-behaviors that humans share in common with many other species. Thus, the initial selective advantage of theory of mind may have been because it increased the flexibility of already-existing behaviors, not because it generated scores of radically new ones.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Minds, modules, and meta-analysis.

Wellman and colleagues' meta-analysis of performance on the false-belief task is methodologically useful, but it does not lead to any theoretical progress concerning the nature of the mechanisms that underlie the existence and development of "theory of mind." In particular, the results of this meta-analysis are perfectly compatible with "early competence" accounts that posit a specific, innate, and possibly modular basis for theory of mind. The arguments presented by Wellman and colleagues against such views stem not from their meta-analytic data, but from mistaken assumptions regarding the requirements of such theories (e.g., that there exist manipulations that improve performance only, or to a greater degree, in young children). Contrary to what Wellman and colleagues claim, their meta-analysis, while consistent with conceptual change, does not lend any new support for such theories.

Child↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Theory of mind and conceptual change.

We agree with the commentaries by Scholl and Leslie, and also by Moses, that the meta-analytic findings do not definitively rule out early competence accounts. But they do make extant versions of such accounts increasingly unlikely. In particular, the meta-analytic findings argue against executive function expression accounts, including the Theory-of-Mind Mechanism/Selection Processor account advocated by Scholl and Leslie. Specifically, Scholl and Leslie articulate two explicit predictions of their account: that task manipulations that attenuate inhibitory demands should differentially advantage older children, and that theory-of-mind developments should occur with consistent timetables. Both of these specific predictions are clearly contradicted, not supported, by the meta-analytic findings.

Child↗
PubMed2000

Exaggerating temporal differences enhances recognition of individuals from point light displays.

Humans are very good at perceiving each other's movements. In this article, we investigate the role of time-based information in the recognition of individuals from point light biological motion sequences. We report an experiment in which we used an exaggeration technique that changes temporal properties while keeping spatial information constant; differences in the durations of motion segments are exaggerated relative to average values. Participants first learned to recognize six individuals on the basis of a simple, unexaggerated arm movement. Subsequently, they recognized positively exaggerated versions of those movements better than the originals. Absolute duration did not appear to be the critical cue. The results show that time-based cues are used for the recognition of movements and that exaggerating temporal differences improves performance. The results suggest that exaggeration may reflect general principles of how diagnostic information is encoded for recognition in different domains.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Antigravity hills are visual illusions.

Antigravity hills, also known as spook hills or magnetic hills, are natural places where cars put into neutral are seen to move uphill on a slightly sloping road, apparently defying the law of gravity. We show that these effects, popularly attributed to gravitational anomalies, are in fact visual illusions. We re-created all the known types of antigravity spots in our laboratory using tabletop models; the number of visible stretches of road, their slant, and the height of the visible horizon were systematically varied in four experiments. We conclude that antigravity-hill effects follow from a misperception of the eye level relative to gravity, caused by the presence of either contextual inclines or a false horizon line.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Sensorimotor adaptation to violations of temporal contiguity.

Most events are processed by a number of neural pathways. These pathways often differ considerably in processing speed. Thus, coherent perception requires some form of synchronization mechanism. Moreover, this mechanism must be flexible, because neural processing speed changes over the life of an organism. Here we provide behavioral evidence that humans can adapt to a new intersensory temporal relationship (which was artificially produced by delaying visual feedback). The conflict between these results and previous work that failed to find such improvements can be explained by considering the present results as a form of sensorimotor adaptation.

Adult↗
PubMed1989

Changes in the psychological defence system as a function of alcohol intoxication in men.

Social drinking young men participated in an experiment exploring whether acute alcohol intoxication affects the characteristics of the psychological defence structure. It was found that a moderate alcohol dose (1.0 ml of 100% alcohol/kg body weight) increased the overall level of defence activity compared to a sober Control group and as measured by the Defence Mechanism Test. This increase was mainly due to a significant increase in the defence mechanism Isolation. Gender differences in this respect and the implications of this shift in the defence structure for the understanding of intoxicated behavior and motives for drinking were discussed.

Adult↗
PubMed1989

Visuo-motor reaction times of normal subjects and schizophrenics using inverting prisms.

The visuo-motor reaction times of normal subjects and schizophrenics were measured to investigate adaptation of eye-hand coordination in schizophrenics under modified vision. Reaction time was measured in 32 normal subjects and 32 schizophrenics by using a rectangular board with 24 illuminated buttons. Subjects' task was to press an illuminated button as quickly as possible under normal and modified vision. Time elapsed from when the light was switched on to when the button was pressed was measured as the visuo-motor reaction time in msec. Three conditions were set up: control in normal vision; inverted using an inverting goggle; reversed using a reversing goggle. In general the visuo-motor reaction times of schizophrenics were slower than those of normal subjects. But in the reversed condition, there was no significant difference between normal subjects and schizophrenics. The visuo-motor reaction times of schizophrenics in the reversed condition showed a large dispersion with the fastest being faster than that of any normal subjects. It is suggested that there may be a group among schizophrenics whose basic paradigm of visuo-motor association is different from that of normal subjects.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

The Thatcher illusion and face processing in infancy.

Adults readily detect changes in face patterns brought about by the inversion of eyes and mouth when the faces are viewed upright but not when they are viewed upside down. Research suggests that this illusion (the Thatcher illusion) is caused by the interfering effects of face inversion on the processing of second-order relational information (fine spatial information such as the distance between the eyes). In the current study, 6-month-olds discriminated 'thatcherized' faces when they were viewed upright but not when they were viewed upside down. These results are consistent with the notion that 6-month-olds are sensitive to second-order relational information while processing faces.

Facial Expression↗
PubMed2006

Forgetting of prior remembering in persons reporting recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse.

Case studies of individuals reporting recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse suggest that some overestimate their prior forgetting of the abuse. People reporting recovered or continuous memories of childhood sexual abuse and control subjects reporting no history of abuse participated in two experiments examining this "forgot it all along" phenomenon. Participants in Experiment 1 were more likely to forget that they had previously recalled a studied item if they were cued to think of it differently on two recall tests than if they were cued to think of it in the same way on the two tests. This effect was stronger for recovered-memory participants than for continuous-memory and control participants. In Experiment 2, participants recalled autobiographical events three times over a period of 4 months. Much as in Experiment 1, they underestimated prior remembering when the events had been recalled in a different emotional frame (positive vs. negative) on the previous occasion. This underestimation was more pronounced for recovered-memory participants than for continuous-memory and control participants.

Adult↗
PubMed1996

The long-lasting now: disorganization in subjective time in long-standing pain.

This paper presents a phenomenological-hermeneutical case study on long-standing pain (LP), a public health problem of great importance. Although there has been intensive research interest in this phenomenon, most studies have been based on traditional medical and cognitive-behavioral approaches. Our thesis is that new frames of reference can provide additional heuristic insights. The phenomenon of LP shows a strong association with existential factors. Our case study focuses on the meaning-structure of lived temporality, a fundamental existential constituent in the lifeworld of the pain patient. A series of in-depth interviews with four subjects showed that lived temporality is disrupted in pain experience, causing a disorganization of the patient's being in the world. The results generate several hypotheses about implications for time estimation in pain experience.

Aged↗
PubMed1993

Bottle, tulip and wineglass: semantic and structural picture processing by savant artists.

Semantic and structural aspects of picture processing were investigated with graphically gifted mentally handicapped subjects and intellectually normal children. The results suggest that savants as well as controls rely primarily on semantically organised memory schemata when reproducing pictures. A semantically determined strategy also determines picture sorting. The findings indicate that within the domain of expertise there appears to be no difference between savants and normals regarding the nature of the mental structures underlying specific talents. The mental structures on which such talents are based, should therefore be regarded as being relatively independent of the level of general cognitive functioning.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1997

Clinical characteristics and long-term outcome of migraine with aura in children and adolescents.

A population of 45 young subjects, 16 males and 29 females, affected by migraine with aura were studied prospectively. The mean follow-up was 7 years 6 months. The clinical characteristics and modifications during migraine aura attacks were evaluated. The aura propagated slowly with a pattern corresponding to a cortical pathway in the posteroanterior direction in 71% of the series, and was visual alone in 40%. Analysis of the relation between the course, and therefore prognosis, and the aura type showed that headache has a better prognosis when symptoms continue to be only visual. The International Headache Society (IHS) classification subdivides migraine with aura into six categories based on the duration of symptoms and the clinical characteristics (hemiplegic, basilar). Our results suggest that subjects with only visual aura should be considered separately, possibly as a seventh category, because they may have a more favourable prognosis.

Adolescent↗