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PubMed2000

Options for managing foodstuffs contaminated with radiocesium and radiostrontium.

In the event of a future nuclear accident, foodstuffs with activity concentrations greater than specified intervention levels would be banned for human consumption. Three broad strategies could be used to manage such produce: in situ treatment, alternative uses, or disposal. This paper describes an assessment of the practicability of nine potential management options for contaminated arable crops for use in the UK. Practicability is affected by six factors: technical feasibility, capacity, cost, environmental impact, radiological impact, and acceptability. These were assessed quantitatively, where possible, through consultation with experts from a range of organizations, and a detailed radiological impact assessment was undertaken. Suggestions are made on the most practicable options for managing cereals, field-grown vegetables, and annual fruit contaminated with radiocesium and radiostrontium. Options are available for managing foodstuffs with activity concentrations of up to 8.3 x 10(4) Bq kg(-1) 134Cs, 2.1 x 10(5) Bq kg(-1) 137Cs, 7.7 x 10(8) Bq kg(-1) 89Sr and 3.0 x 10(5) Bq kg(-1) 90Sr, which are well in excess of those expected from design basis accidents.

Cesium Radioisotopes↗
PubMed2000

Soil-to-plant transfer factors for radiocesium and radiostrontium in agricultural systems.

A database of soil-to-plant transfer factors for radiocesium and radiostrontium has been compiled for arable crops from published and unpublished sources. The database is more extensive than previous compilations of data published by the International Union of Radioecologists, containing new information for Scandinavia and Greece in particular. It also contains ancillary data on important soil characteristics. The database is sub-divided into 28 soil-crop combinations, covering four soil types and seven crop groups. Statistical analyses showed that transfer factors for radiocesium could not generally be predicted as a function of climatic region, type of experiment, age of contamination, or soil characteristics. However, significant relationships accounting for more than 30% of the variability in transfer factor were identified between transfer factors for radiostrontium and soil pH/organic matter status for a few soil-crop combinations. Best estimate transfer factors for radiocesium and radiostrontium were calculated for 28 soil-crop combinations, based on their geometric means: only the edible parts were considered. To predict the likely value of future individual transfer factors, 95% confidence intervals were also derived. A comparison of best estimate transfer factors derived in this study with recommended values published by the International Union of Radioecologists in 1989 and 1992 was made for comparable soil-crop groupings. Whilst there were no significant differences between the best estimate values derived in this study and the 1992 data, radiological assessments that still use 1989 data may be unnecessarily cautious.

Agriculture↗
PubMed2000

Foodstuff survey around a major nuclear facility with test of satellite images application.

A foodstuff survey was performed around the Savannah River Site, Aiken, South Carolina. It included a census of buildings and fields within 5 km of the boundary and determination of the locations and amounts of crops grown within 80 km of the Savannah River Site center. Recent information for this region was collected on the amounts of meat, poultry, milk, and eggs produced, of deer hunted, and of sports fish caught. The locations and areas devoted to growing each crop were determined by the usual process of applying county agricultural statistics reported by state agencies. This process was compared to crop analysis of two LANDSAT Thematic Mapper images. For use with environmental radionuclide transfer and radiation dose calculation codes, locations within 80 km were defined for 64 sections by 16 sectors centered on the Site and by 16-km distance intervals from 16 km to 80 km. The median areas per section devoted to each of four food crops based on county agricultural statistics were about two-thirds of those based on satellite image analysis. Most locally-raised foodstuff was distributed regionally and not retained locally for consumption.

Food Contamination, Radioactive↗
PubMed2000

Increased 137Cs metabolism during pregnancy.

A woman temporarily visiting the Brjansk area in southern Russia ingested, without her knowledge, 35.5 kBq of 137Cs in a single mushroom meal. Seven months later the woman became pregnant. Her total body content of 137Cs and 40K was measured regularly in a whole-body counter for three years following this intake. Data were thus available for the whole-body content for the periods before, during, and after pregnancy. Urine samples were collected regularly, and on two occasions breast milk was sampled. The 137Cs concentration in urine and breast milk was analyzed with a gamma-ray spectrometer. The body content of 137Cs decreased with a biological half-time of 107 d [95% confidence interval (CI): 106,109] before pregnancy, 58 d (95% CI: 53,64) during pregnancy, and 96 d (95% CI: 43,346) after the child was born. The ratio between the concentration of 137Cs in the urine (Bq/L urine) and in the body (Bq/kg body weight) increased during pregnancy from 18 +/- 6% to 35 +/- 6% (+/- 1 SD). The results show that there was a rapid decrease in the biological half-time of 137Cs at the beginning of the pregnancy and an increase after the child was born. The biological half-time during pregnancy was 54% of the half-time before pregnancy, which was reflected in the increased excretion of 137Cs in the urine. The ratio of the 137Cs concentration in breast milk to the whole body was 15% in the first month of breast-feeding. The effective dose, E, to the mother as a result from this intake was estimated to be 0.5 mSv, and the absorbed dose to the fetus was 0.06 mGy. These results are consistent with those reported elsewhere.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

Modeled concentrations in rice and ingestion doses from chronic atmospheric releases of tritium.

The expansion of nuclear power programs in Asia has stimulated interest in the improved modeling of concentrations of tritium in rice, a staple crop grown throughout the far east. Normally, the specific activity model is used to calculate concentrations of tritium in the tissue water of edible plants to assess ingestion dose from chronic releases. However, because rice, like other grains, has much lower water content than most crops, the calculation must also account for organically bound tritium. This paper reviews ways to calculate steady-state concentrations of tritium in rice, including the methods of Canadian and United States regulatory models, and the assumptions behind them. Concentrations in rice and resulting ingestion doses are compared for the various methods, and equations for calculating concentrations are recommended. The regulatory models underestimate doses received from ingestion of rice contaminated with tritium since they do not account explicitly for organically bound tritium. The importance of including organically bound tritium is illustrated in a comparison of doses from rice, leafy vegetables and milk for an Asian diet. Dose factors from tritium for these foods are estimated to be 135, 47, and 20 nSv y(-1)/(Bq m(-3)), respectively. Assuming known air concentrations, tritium concentrations in rice, calculated with the recommended equations, are uncertain by less than a factor 2 when tritium concentrations in the rice paddy water are known, and by less than a factor of 2.3 when concentrations in paddy water are unknown.

Food Contamination, Radioactive↗
PubMed2000

Radiocesium in children residing in the western districts of the Bryansk Oblast from 1991-1996.

Measurements of 137Cs body burden were carried out in 1991-1996 for children residing in the western part of Bryansk Oblast (Russia) where area contamination with 137Cs following the Chernobyl accident varied from 0.03-3.7 MBq m(-2). The mean and median values of 137Cs specific activity (SA) in the bodies of children 5-15 y old for the whole period of surveillance averaged for 26,029 measurements was 85 Bq kg(-1) and 49 Bq kg(-1), respectively. Mean values in different places of residence varied from 30-342 Bq kg(-1) for the settlements where the number of examinees was not less than 50. There is a moderately strong relationship between mean SA in the settlement and the level of area contamination with 137Cs. A strong seasonal effect on 137Cs body burden was found. The ratio of average SA values is 1:1.75 for spring to autumn 1992-1995 in the settlement where the largest number of children was examined. This effect might be attributed to a seasonal change in diet. Based on questionnaire information on individual consumption of locally produced foods, the descending rank of contribution of food items to 137Cs intake by children was found to be: meat-mushrooms-milk-vegetables. Assuming that the dose distribution would follow the distribution of SA values, internal doses to the whole body from ingested 137Cs were assessed. The mean value of annual internal dose averaged for the whole set of measurements is 0.21 mSv, and the median of the individual dose distribution is 0.12 mSv y(-1) For 2% of the total sample the annual dose exceeded 1 mSv, with the highest individual dose being 9 mSv in 1994 for a 7-y-old girl.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2000

Free water 3H concentration in diet samples collected from 1969 to 1988 in Akita, Japan.

Fallout 3H concentrations in diet samples collected from 1969 to 1988 in Akita Prefecture are reported. Since the data for samples from the 1960's and 1970's are important to understand the long-term movement of 3H in the environment, we searched for old diet samples. Recently, diet samples collected in Akita Prefecture during 1969-1982 were found and subjected to 3H analysis. The samples were originally gathered for nutrition survey programs and had been stored in a refrigerated warehouse at -20 degrees C until we located them. The free water 3H concentrations in the samples were measured and are reported here. The present results are combined with already published data; together they show 3H concentrations exponentially decrease from 1969 to 1988 with an apparent half time of 5.9 y. Levels of diet free water 3H concentrations are also similar to measured and estimated precipitation 3H concentrations in Akita City.

Diet Surveys↗
PubMed2000

90Sr and 137Cs in environmental samples from Dolon near the Semipalatinsk Nuclear Test Site.

The (90)Sr and (137)Cs activities of soil, plant, and milk samples from the village of Dolon, located close to the Semipalatinsk Nuclear Test Site in Kazakhstan, were determined. The areal deposition at the nine sampling sites is in the range of <500 to 6,100 Bq m(-2) and 300 to 7,900 Bq m-2 for (90)Sr and (137)Cs, respectively. Similar values have been reported in the literature. At some of the sites both nuclides mainly have remained in the top 6 cm of the soil profiles; at others they were partly transported into deeper soil layers since the deposition. For most of the samples the (90)Sr yield after destruction of the soil matrix is significantly higher than after extracting with 6 M HCl indicating that (90)Sr is partly associated with fused silicates. The low mean (90)Sr activity concentrations of vegetation samples (14 Bq kg(-1) dw) and milk samples (0.05 Bq kg(-1) fw) suggest that this has favorable consequences in terms of limiting its bioavailability.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Internal exposure from the ingestion of foods contaminated by 137Cs after the Chernobyl accident--report 2. Ingestion doses of the rural population of Ukraine up to 12 y after the accident (1986-1997).

Doses from the ingestion of 134Cs and 137Cs during 12 y following the Chernobyl accident have been estimated for approximately 3 million persons living in rural areas of the Zhitomir, Rivne, and Kyiv Oblasts of northern Ukraine. This assessment is based upon an extensive monitoring campaign that provided measurements of 137Cs in more than 120,000 samples of milk and in more than 100,000 persons; such measurements were made in approximately 4,500 locations. Two approaches were used for the dose assessment. In the first approach a so-called reference dose is estimated for each settlement on the basis of measured 137Cs concentration in milk, determination of the milk equivalent of diet, and consumption rates; a further assumption is that a high fraction of the food consumed is produced locally. The reference dose is used as the official dose estimate, which is the basis for any decision on possible financial compensation and economic privileges. In a second step, the so-called real age-dependent dose is estimated from the results of whole body counter measurements and the kinetics of radiocesium in the human body. Real doses above 0.5, 5, and 50 mSv were received by about 40%, 10%, and 0.2%, respectively, of the considered population. With the exception of 1986, for which the monitoring results were limited, the real individual doses derived from whole-body counting are consistently lower than the reference doses. However, this difference declined from a factor of 3-4 in 1987-1989 to a factor of approximately 1.5 in the mid 1990's. The difference between reference and real doses is attributed to the effectiveness of countermeasures implemented after the accident. The effectiveness of these countermeasures decreased with time due to increasing economic problems in Ukraine. The collective reference and real doses of the rural population due to the intake of 134Cs and 137Cs are estimated to be 13,300 and 5,300 person-Sv, respectively. Thus, about 8,000 person-Sv is estimated to have been averted by countermeasures.

Age Factors↗
PubMed2001

Ecological half-time of radiocesium from Chernobyl debris and from nuclear weapons fallout as measured in a group of subjects from the south of Sweden.

From 1960 to 1980 and between 1987 and 1994 the whole-body content of 17Cs, and when possible also 134Cs, was measured in a group of subjects living in the city of Lund, Sweden (55.7 degrees N, 13.2 degrees E). The results have been analyzed to estimate the effective ecological half-time of fallout radiocesium in humans living in the area. The Lund area (The Province of Skåne) was subjected to a deposition of about 2 kBq m(-2) of pre-Chernobyl 137Cs from nuclear weapons testing and 1 kBq m(-2) of 137Cs from Chernobyl fallout in May 1986. The radiocesium from the nuclear weapons tests in the 1950's and 1960's still gave a significant contribution to the total 137Cs levels in humans in the post-Chernobyl study period (1987-1994) of about 0.4 Bq per kg body weight, which was about 10% of the peak post-Chernobyl concentration level of 137Cs (3.5-4 Bq kg(-1)) in 1987. The effective ecological half-time for 137Cs from Chernobyl was found to be 1.8 +/- 0.2 y. The aggregate transfer factor from deposition to mean activity concentration in man was estimated to be 3.6 Bq kg(-1)/kBq m(-2). These values may be compared with an effective ecological half-time of 1.3 y found in the reference group in the 1960's, and an aggregate transfer factor of 10 Bq kg(-1)/kBq m(-2). This difference is largely explained by the continuous nature of the global fallout leading to contamination on growing crops whereas the Chernobyl fallout occurred just prior to the South Swedish growing season, leading to less efficient transfer to crops and to human diet. The average committed individual effective dose (50 y) from ingested 137Cs from the Chernobyl fallout was estimated to be 0.02 mSv and from the nuclear weapons fallout (1945-1995) to be 0.20 mSv.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Dietary intake of 210Po and 210Pb in the environment of Goa of south-west Coast of India.

This paper deals with the distribution and activity intake of 210Po and 210Pb in food, diet, and potable water samples of the Goa region and the estimated committed effective dose due to ingestion of these radionuclides. The activity concentrations of 210Po and 210Pb were determined in about 30 food and diet samples from different places of Goa in order to know the distribution and intake of these radionuclides. The activity concentration of 210Po in fish and prawn samples were significantly higher than concentrations found in vegetable and rice samples. Higher concentrations of 210Po and 210Pb were observed in leafy vegetables than in non-leafy vegetables. Among the diet samples the activity concentrations of 210Po and 210Pb in non-vegetarian meal samples were relatively higher than in vegetarian meal and breakfast samples. The committed effective dose due to annual intake of 210Po was found to be 94.6 microSv, 49.1 microSv, 10.5 microSv, and 2.2 microSv and that of 210Pb found to be 81.6 microSv, 59.9 microSv, 14.6 microSv, and 2.0 microSv for the ingestion of non-vegetarian meal, vegetarian meal, breakfast, and potable water, respectively.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Reconstruction of the ingestion doses received by the population evacuated from the settlements in the 30-km zone around the Chernobyl reactor.

As a consequence of the Chernobyl accident, about 50,000 people were evacuated from the settlements in the 30-km zone around the reactor in the period 3-11 d after the accident. As no countermeasures were implemented in the early phase, people continued to consume milk and some leafy vegetables. In this paper, average effective ingestion doses are modeled for evacuees. Input data for the assessment are the 137Cs activity per unit area, the ratios of the radionuclides relative to 137Cs, the mean day of evacuation, and intake rates for milk and green vegetables. The transfer of radionuclides from deposition to humans is estimated by modeling radionuclide interception by vegetation, weathering, and the time-dependent transfer of radionuclides to milk taking into account site-specific agricultural practices. Depending on the evacuation day and site, the estimated ingestion doses for the settlements are in the range of 20 to 1,300 mSv and 3 to 180 mSv for infants and adults, respectively. 131I is by far the most important isotope, the ingestion dose due to 133I is more than one order of magnitude lower. The most exposed organ is the thyroid, inducing more than 80% and 50% of the ingestion dose for infants and adults. The ingestion doses are compared to the doses due to inhalation and external exposure. The internal dose exceeds the external by a factor of about 2-10 for adults and 2-40 for 1-y-old infants depending on site and evacuation day. The thyroid doses assessed for the evacuees are consistent with results achieved in studies performed in areas outside the 30-km zone.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Effect of soil amendments on radiocesium transfer to alfalfa.

Greenhouse experiments were carried out to evaluate the effect of different soil-based countermeasures on radiocesium transfer to Medicago saliva (alfalfa) grown on artificially contaminated loamy-clayey soil. Various rates of potassium, ammonium, and Prussian Blue supplements were applied, and the uptake of radiocesium by control and treated alfalfa plants was monitored during four growth periods. Transfer factors ranging between 0.06 and 0.02 were determined for control plants. Application of potassium at rates higher than 0.1 meq per 100 g soil was found to suppress radiocesium uptake, the effect being more pronounced at increasing fertilization rates. On the contrary, soil treatment with ammonium enhanced the bio-accumulation of radiocesium, indicating that Cs+ ions, previously unavailable to plant roots, were released from soil particles. Prussian Blue supplements had practically no effect on soil-to-alfalfa transfer of the radionuclide.

Agriculture↗
PubMed2003

Retrospective evaluation of 131I deposition density and thyroid dose in Poland after the Chernobyl accident.

The 131I deposition in Poland after the Chernobyl accident on 26 April 1986 was evaluated from the determined 129I deposition and the estimated 129I/131I ratio at the time of the arrival of fallout. Concentrations of 129I and 127I were determined by neutron activation analysis in uncultivated soils from 16 locations in Poland. Determination of 137Cs in soils was carried out by gamma spectrometry. The atomic ratio of 129I/131I at the time of fallout arrival was estimated using the 129I/131I ratio at the time of the accident, which, on the basis of the core inventory data, was assumed to be 22.8. It was estimated from the time of fallout arrival and from the weighed mean atomic ratio that the 129I/131I ratio for Poland was 32.8. The calculated 131I deposition ranged from 63.2 to 729 kBq m(-2). High deposition of 131I occurred in the locations with rainfall but occasionally also in locations without rainfall. Committed equivalent doses from 131I were evaluated for 5-y-old children, 10-y-old children, and adults using the computer model CLRP for the situations with and without countermeasures including iodine prophylaxis. The highest thyroid doses from inhalation and ingestion without countermeasures were 178 mSv, 120 mSv, and 45 mSv for 5-y-old children, 10-y-old children, and adults, respectively. The countermeasures reduced these doses by about 30%.

Administration, Inhalation↗
PubMed2003

Thorium concentration in Pakistani diet.

To evaluate radiation doses due to ingestion of thorium activity by members of the public, baseline analytical data on thorium concentration in a typical Pakistani diet was generated. Food samples were collected from major districts/ cities of the country using the market basket method, and typical daily diets were prepared. Thorium concentration was determined by instrumental neutron activation analysis. It was found to vary from 1.6 ng g(-1) to 12 ng g(-1). The median value was 4.6 ng g(-1). This leads to median daily thorium intake of 2.7 microg d(-1). The geometric mean was 2.6 microg d(-1), which was 13% less than the ICRP value. Based on these measurements the average intake of 232Th activity was 10 mBq d(-1), and the average annual and committed effective doses for adults were estimated to be 8.8 x 10(-7) Sv y(-1) and 4.4 x 10(-5) Sv, respectively.

Diet↗
PubMed2003

Activity levels of 137Cs and 40K in the skin and the cutaneous organs of a cow.

We have performed an extensive study to determine the activity distributions of radiocesium (137Cs) and of the radioisotope 40K of potassium in the whole body of a cow. ICRP assumes that cesium and potassium are distributed homogeneously throughout the whole body of an organism. The current investigation measured concentrations of 137Cs and 40K in components of the skin, horns, and hooves of a cow. Activity levels of 137Cs were caused by the long-term ingestion following the Chernobyl fallout, whereas the naturally occurring potassium (40K) is an essential part of cow's normal diet. The cow was born at the time of the fallout following the Chernobyl accident and had ingested heavily contaminated forage during its entire lifetime. Activities of 137Cs and 40K were determined simultaneously by gamma spectrometry. All activities are related to the day of slaughter and include also corrections for self attenuation of photons caused by the different densities of the samples. Radionuclide concentrations in samples were corrected for moisture losses incurred during freezing and sample preparation. Surface contamination on the skin was estimated by rinsing it in heated water followed by removal of the epidermis and hair. In comparison with the activities of the components of the skin we observed a considerable amount of external contamination on the surface of the skin. But with respect to whole body countings of the animal this amount of external contamination appears to be negligible. It was found that activity ratios of 137Cs to 40K are greater than 1 in all measured components. The average activity concentrations of 137Cs and 40K in the common integument are 23.3 Bq kg(-1) and 13.3 Bq kg(-1), respectively. The highest activity concentrations of 137Cs and 40K were measured in clean hair and hypodermis. Despite being its largest organ, the cow's skin contains probably less than 1% of the animal's whole body 137Cs activity.

Administration, Oral↗
PubMed2003

Free water 3H concentrations in serum samples collected during 1969-1992 in Akita, Japan.

The measurements for human and environmental samples from the 1960's and 1970's are important to understand the long-term transfer of 3H from the environment to the human body. The authors have previously reported 3H concentrations in diet samples collected in Akita Prefecture during 1969-1988. Serum samples from persons living in Akita Prefecture during 1969-1992 were recently obtained. The samples were originally gathered for medical examinations and stored in freezers at -20 degrees C. Composite samples from 100 persons on average were made for analysis. The free water 3H (FWT) concentrations in those samples were determined and compared with 3H concentrations in diet samples and precipitation. The long-term variation pattern of the FWT concentrations in the serum samples was similar to patterns in the diet samples and precipitation, but the FWT concentrations in the serum samples were slightly higher than those in the latter two. A single compartment model calculation showed that the apparent mean residence time of serum FWT was 1.4 y using precipitation as an input to the compartment.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Uranium daily intake and urinary excretion: a preliminary study in Italy.

An estimate was made of daily uranium intake in Italy through human diet and drinking water. The uranium concentration was determined in food, drinking water, and other beverages. Uranium concentration was also determined in a "total diet" sampled in 1999. The total daily dietary intake was estimated to be in the range 2.9-4.8 microg d(-1). The contribution of drinking water to the total uranium intake is sometimes significant as the uranium concentration range in 29 analyzed tap and bottled "mineral" waters is 0.04-5.86 microg L(-1) and the drinking water consumption about 1 L d(-1) or more. Data obtained in this study were compared with data from literature on the uranium daily intake in other countries. Urine samples were collected from 24 male and 14 female occupationally unexposed subjects, 20-50 y of age, living and working in the district of Rome (Italy). The mean concentration found was 10 +/- 7.0 ng L(-1); the inter-subject variability and the daily variability was evaluated. Analyses were performed using ICP-MS.

Adult↗