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Immobilization of antibodies on alginate-chitosan beads.

An anti-hapten IgG was covalently immobilized on glutaraldehyde-activated alginate-chitosan gel beads. The antibody immobilization efficiency was influenced by glutaraldehyde-bead reaction time, IgG concentration and pH. In addition, immobilization conditions such as glutaraldehyde and antibody concentrations influenced antibody hapten binding affinity. The immobilized IgG on the beads was stable and no reduction in the percent binding to hapten was noticed following 25 days of storage. It was concluded that antibodies could be successfully immobilized on alginate-chitosan gel beads. Such a system can be applied for the development of immunoaffinity purification and immunoassays.

Alginates↗

Recombinant osteogenic protein-1 upregulates extracellular matrix metabolism by rabbit annulus fibrosus and nucleus pulposus cells cultured in alginate beads.

This study was performed to determine if recombinant human osteogenic protein-1 (rhOP-1) is effective in promoting matrix synthesis and matrix formation by rabbit nucleus pulposus (NP) and annulus fibrosus (AF) cells cultured in alginate beads. The effects of culturing the cells in the presence of various concentrations of rhOP-1 were assessed by measuring changes in cell proliferation, proteoglycan (PG) and collagen synthesis and mRNA expression, and in the matrix contents of PG and collagen, as indicators of matrix accumulation. At high concentrations, rhOP-1 had a moderate mitogenic effect on both NP and AF cells. It also stimulated the synthesis of PG and collagen in a dose-dependent manner: this was associated with a corresponding increase in the expression of mRNA for aggrecan core protein and collagen type II. The stimulatory effect of rhOP-1 on PG synthesis was more pronounced than that on collagen synthesis. Continuous treatment with rhOP-1 led to an increase in the total DNA, PG and collagen contents in both NP and AF cultures. The results presented here provide evidence of the ability of rhOP-1 to stimulate the metabolism of both rabbit AF and NP cells cultured in alginate beads.

Aggrecans↗

Chondrogenic differentiation of mesenchymal progenitor cells encapsulated in ultrahigh-viscosity alginate.

One major problem of current cartilage repair techniques is that three-dimensional encapsulated mesenchymal progenitor cells frequently differentiate into hypertrophic cells that express type X collagen and osteogenic marker genes. Studies on wild-type cells of murine mesenchymal C3H10T1/2 progenitor cells as well as on cells transfected with cDNA encoding for bone morphogenetic protein (BMP)-2 or -4 in alginate revealed that the formation of markers for osteogenesis and chondrogenic hypertrophy apparently depended on the BMP-transfection. Cells were encapsulated in ultrahigh-viscosity, clinical grade alginate and differentiation was studied over a period of 17 days. Consistent with results published previously staining with haematoxylin-eosin or Alcian blue, immunohistochemical analysis, and quantitative RT-PCR confirmed the expression of chondrogenic markers (chondroitin-4- and -6-sulfate as well as type II collagen). Production of chondrogenic markers was particularly high in BMP-4 transfected cells. Hypertrophic chondrogenesis did not occur in BMP-4 transfected cells, as revealed by measurement of type X collagen, but could be demonstrated for wild-type cells and to some extent for BMP-2 transfected cells. The osteogenic markers, type I collagen, alkaline phosphatase, and Cbfa1 were upregulated in all cell lines even though the levels and the time of upregulation differed significantly. In any case, the markers were less and only very shortly expressed in BMP-4 transfected cells as revealed quantitatively by real time RT-PCR. Thus, the in vitro results suggested that BMP-4 is a very promising candidate for suppressing chondrogenic hypertrophy, while simultaneously enhancing the production of chondrogenic components.

Alginates↗

Survival of different cell lines in alginate-agarose microcapsules.

Cell microencapsulation has emerged as a promising therapeutic strategy to treat a wide range of diseases. The optimisation of this technology depends on several critical issues such as the careful selection of the cell line, the controlled manufacture of microcapsules and the suitable adaptation of the construct design to the selected cell line. In this work, we studied the behavior of hybridoma cells once enclosed in solid and liquefied core alginate-agarose beads. Results show that hybridoma cells presented a better growing pattern and improved their viability and antibody production within liquefied beads. However, when these beads were evaluated with a compression resistance study, they were found to be mechanically more fragile than solid ones. To address this problem, we entrapped non-autologous cells (BHK fibroblast and C2C12 myoblast) in solid alginate-agarose beads and observed that they showed an improved growing profile and prolonged their viability up to 70 days in comparison to the 15 days seen for the hybridoma cells.

Alginates↗

Evaluation of three methods for culturing alginate throat swabs from cystic fibrosis patients.

Deep throat swabs are usually cultured for potential respiratory pathogens in patients with cystic fibrosis (CF) who do not produce sputum. Using alginate swabs, three methods were examined in the present study: (i) semiquantitative processing (direct plating); (ii) mere elution of swabs in Ringer's lactate followed by plating of the eluate; and (iii) complete quantitative processing (elution plus two-step dilution series). Throat swabs from 56 CF patients yielded 122 isolates of potential respiratory pathogens. Semiquantitative processing (n = 101 isolates) was not significantly inferior to elution (n = 104) and quantitative processing (n = 113; p > 0.05). Since semiquantitative processing is the simplest method, it is to be preferred, provided that alginate swabs are used.

Adolescent↗

Preliminary assessment of alginic acid as a factor buffering triethanolamine interacting with artificial skin sebum.

Triethanolamine is an ethanolamine used as counter-ion for fatty acid soaps. Interaction between triethanolamine and free fatty acids is suggested to be useful for cleansing sebaceous follicles in acne prevention. This study describes the preliminary assessment of alginic acid as a factor buffering triethanolamine interacting with stearic acid--a compound of artificial skin sebum. Penetration of triethanolamine into artificial sebum, induced by the above mentioned interaction, was measured using a specific optical method. The values of the penetration depth amounted to 0.07-5.74 mm. pH values were measured. The value of pH is reduced from 10.06 for pure 1.49% (w/w) aqueous triethanolamine solution to 6.61 with the increase of the alginic acid to triethanolamine ratio in the preparations. The data of this in vitro research will support further study on other anionic polymers as factors buffering ethanolamines penetrating artificial skin sebum.

Alginates↗

Transfer and subsequent metabolism of lysolipids studied by immobilizing subcellular compartments in alginate beads.

The transfer and subsequent metabolism of lysophosphatidylcholine between subcellular compartments were studied in vitro by embedding membranes in alginate beads. After several experiments to validate the process, it was demonstrated that lysophosphatidylcholine was transferred from microsomes embedded in alginate beads to immobilized chloroplasts, that this transfer involved the partition of this molecule, and that the imported lysophosphatidylcholine was further used as substrate for phosphatidylcholine biosynthesis. More generally, the technique used makes it possible to avoid any cross-contamination between compartments, to evidence a transfer of molecules, and to study the metabolism of the imported molecules in the acceptor compartment.

Alginates↗

A comparative study of calcium sodium alginate (Kaltostat) and bismuth tribromophenate (Xeroform) packing in the management of epistaxis.

A prospective study was undertaken to compare the efficacy of calcium sodium alginate fibre (Kaltostat) to petrolatum gauze impregnated with bismuth tribromophenate (Xeroform) for the control of epistaxes that require hospital admission. Forty patients presenting with severe epistaxis requring hospital admission were treated with either Kaltostat or Xeroform nasal packs. Allocation to either treatment group was made randomly. The composition of each group in terms of age, sex distribution, aetiology of epistaxis and severity of bleed was not significantly different. There was no significant difference in the efficacy or patient acceptability of either therapeutic agent. It is concluded that calcium sodium alginate fibre should be considered as an acceptable alternative to traditional gauze packing.

Adolescent↗

Crystal structure of GDP-mannose dehydrogenase: a key enzyme of alginate biosynthesis in P. aeruginosa.

The enzyme GMD from Pseudomonas aeruginosa catalyzes the committed step in the synthesis of the exopolysaccharide alginate. Alginate is a major component of P. aeruginosa biofilms that protect the bacteria from the host immune response and antibiotic therapy. The 1.55 A crystal structure of GMD in ternary complex with its cofactor NAD(H) and product GDP-mannuronic acid reveals that the enzyme forms a domain-swapped dimer with two polypeptide chains contributing to each active site. The extensive dimer interface provides multiple opportunities for intersubunit communication. Comparison of the GMD structure with that of UDP-glucose dehydrogenase reveals the structural basis of sugar binding specificity that distinguishes these two related enzyme families. The high-resolution structure of GMD provides detailed information on the active site of the enzyme and a template for structure-based inhibitor design.

Alginates↗

Genipin cross-linked alginate-chitosan microcapsules: membrane characterization and optimization of cross-linking reaction.

The genipin cross-linked alginate-chitosan (GCAC) microcapsule, composed of an alginate core and a genipin cross-linked chitosan membrane, was recently proposed for live cell encapsulation and other delivery applications. This article for the first time describes the details of the microcapsule membrane characterization using a noninvasive and in situ method without any physical or chemical modifications on the samples. Results showed that the cross-linking reaction generated the fluorescent chitosan-genipin conjugates. The cross-linked chitosan membrane was clearly visualized by confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). A straightforward assessment on the membrane thickness and relative intensity was successfully achieved. CLSM studies showed that the shell-like cross-linked chitosan membranes of approximately 37 microm in thickness were formed surrounding the microcapsule. The reaction variables, including cross-linking temperature and time significantly affected the fluorescence intensity of the membranes. Elevating the cross-linking temperature from 4 to 37 degrees C drastically intensified the membrane fluorescence, suggesting the attainment of a high degree of cross-linking on the chitosan membrane. Extended cross-linking time altered the cross-linked membranes in modulation. Although genipin concentration and cross-linking time had little effects on the membrane thickness, cross-linking at higher temperatures tended to form relatively thinner membranes.

Alginates↗

Immobilization of microbial cells in a mixed matrix of silicone polymer and calcium alginate gel: epoxidation of 1-octene by Nocardia corallina B-276 in organic media.

Immobilization of Nocardia corallina B-276 was examined for production of 1,2-epoxyoctane from 1-octene in the presence of n-hexadecane as the organic solvent. Hydrophobic silicone polymer was the most suitable material for entrapment of the cells. Coentrapment of aqueous reaction medium into the silicone polymer matrix improved the epoxide productivity. It was also effective to immobilize the cells in a mixed matrix composed of silicone polymer and calcium alginate gel involving the reaction medium. In the organic monophase, the amount of epoxide accumulated with the cells immobilized in an almost equivolumetric composite of both materials was 2 and 7 times the amounts in the silicone and alginate single matrices, respectively, and it became larger than with the free cells in the aqueous-organic two-liquid phase after a longer period of batch operation. The use of such an optimized composite matrix enabled us to perform a relatively simple operation of the continuous three-phase bioreactor.

Alginates↗

Effective diffusivity of galactose in calcium alginate gels containing immobilized Zymomonas mobilis.

The effective diffusivity of galactose was measured for calcium alginate gel membranes containing immobilized live Zymomonas mobilis cells at concentrations ranging from 0 to 150 g dry wt/L of gel. Since galactose is not taken up by living Z. mobilis organisms, the diffusion of this representative six-carbon sugar could be studied independently of sugar consumption. Various immobilized biomass loadings were achieved by two different techniques: addition of biomass at known concentrations to the sodium alginate solution before membrane formation and growth of cells in the gel to various biomass concentrations. The highest immobilized cell concentration, attained by in situ growth, corresponds to the maximum of this system, as growth beyond this maximum concentration led to disintegration of the gel membrane. The galactose effective diffusivity measurements for both methods of immobilized cell loading overlap within experimental error and follow the same general monotonic decline with entrapped biomass concentration. Most of the data fall below the upper bound predicted by Hashin and Shtrikman (1962) and show good agreement with the random pore model of Wakao and Smith (1962, 1964). Available effective diffusivity data from the literature provide evidence that the random pore model is an excellent predictor of sugar effective diffusivity in gel immobilized cell systems in general.

Alginates↗

Immobilized metal affinity chromatography without chelating ligands: purification of soybean trypsin inhibitor on zinc alginate beads.

Immobilized metal affinity chromatography (IMAC) is a widely used technique for bioseparation of proteins in general and recombinant proteins with polyhistidine fusion tags in particular. An expensive and critical step in this process is coupling of a chelating ligand to the chromatographic matrix. This chelating ligand coordinates metal ions such as Cu(2+), Zn(2+), and Ni(2+), which in turn bind proteins. The toxicity of chemicals required for coupling and their slow release during the separation process are of considerable concern. This is an important issue in the context of purification of proteins/enzymes which are used in food processing or pharmaceutical purposes. In this work, a simpler IMAC design is described which should lead to a paradigm shift in the application of IMAC in separation. It is shown that zinc alginate beads (formed by chelating alginate with Zn(2+) directly) can be used for IMAC. As "proof of concept", soybean trypsin inhibitor was purified 18-fold from its crude extract with 90% recovery of biological activity. The dynamic binding capacity of the packed bed was 3919 U mL(-1), as determined by frontal analysis. The media could be regenerated with 8 M urea and reused five times without any appreciable loss in its binding capacity.

Alginates↗

Culture of neural stem cells in calcium alginate beads.

Neural stem cells (NSCs) with the capacity of extensive self-renewal and multilineage differentiation have attracted more and more attention in research as NSCs will play an important role in the nerve disease treatment and nerve injury repair. The shortage of NSCs, both their sources and their numbers, however, is the biggest challenge for their clinic application, and hence, in vitro culture and expansion of NSCs is vitally important to realize their potentials. In this work, mouse-derived NSCs were cultured in three-dimensional calcium alginate beads (Ca-Alg-Bs). Gelling conditions, cell density, and cell harvest were determined by the exploration of formation and dissociation parameters for Ca-Alg-Bs. Additionally, the recovered and the subsequent induced cells were identified by immunofluorescence staining of Nestin, beta-tubulin, and GFAP. The results show that the 2-mm diameter Ca-Alg-Bs, prepared with 1.5% sodium alginate solution and 3.5% CaCl2 solution and with gelling for 10 min, is suitable for the NSCs culture. The seeding density of 0.8 x 10(5) cells x mL-1 for the encapsulation of NSCs resulted in the most expansion, and the NSCs almost doubled during the experiment. The average cell recovery rate is over 88.5%, with the Ca-Alg-Bs dissolving in 55 mM sodium citrate solution for 10 min. The recovered cells cultured in the Ca-Alg-Bs still expressed Nestin and had the capacity of multilineage differentiation into neurons and glial cells and, thus, remained to be NSCs. These results demonstrate that NSC expansion within Ca-Alg-Bs is feasible and provides further possibilities for NSC expansion in bioreactors of the scale of clinical relevance.

Alginates↗

Electrochemical detection and control of interactions between DNA and electroactive intercalator using a DNA-alginate complex film modified electrode.

The surface of a glassy carbon electrode was modified with a DNA-alginate complex film in which water-soluble DNA was encapsulated into a calcium-alginate gel. The resulting modified electrode (DAFE) was used to detect ethidium bromide (EtBr), after its accumulation on the electrode. The intercalative behavior of EtBr for dsDNA in the film was investigated by measuring the electrode response based on the intercalation of EtBr separated from nonspecific interactions (electrostatic interaction). The accumulation of EtBr in the dsDAF was enhanced by applying a negative potential below -200 mV at the dsDAFE. When a positive potential above +700 mV was applied to the dsDAFE for a constant time with stirring in a Tris buffer solution, the amount accumulated decreased. These results indicate that it is possible to electrochemically control the accumulation and release of EtBr when a dsDAFE is used. In addition, the accumulation and detection of EtBr in spiked river water samples and daunomycin, an antitumor agent, is described.

Alginates↗

Altering associations in aqueous solutions of a hydrophobically modified alginate in the presence of beta-cyclodextrin monomers.

The formation of associative networks in semidilute aqueous solutions of hydrophobically modified alginate (HM-alginate) is dependent on intermolecular hydrophobic interactions. Addition of beta-cyclodextrin (beta-CD) monomers to the system provides decoupling of these associations via inclusion complex formation with the polymer hydrophobic tails. This results in a dramatic decrease in the viscoelastic response of the system and a more extended local structure of the polymer chains, as shown by small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) measurements. The zero-shear viscosity decreases about an order of magnitude when the beta-CD concentration is increased from 0 to 12 mm. The lifetime of the associative network decreases strongly with increasing levels of beta-CD addition. These findings clearly demonstrate that the hydrophobic association effect is efficiently reduced as the amount of beta-CD is increased. In the framework of drug delivery, this effect may be useful to improve the release of therapeutic molecules that can be entrapped in the polymer matrix.

Alginates↗

Gold and silver uptake and nanoprecipitation on calcium alginate beads.

Calcium alginate beads were investigated for their biosorption performance in the removal of gold and silver from aqueous solutions. It was found that uptake capacities were significantly affected by the solution pH, with optimum pH values of 2 and 4 for gold and silver, respectively. Kinetic and isotherm experiments were carried out at the optimum pH. The maximum uptake capacities were 290 mg/g for Au and 52 mg/g for Ag. FTIR analysis indicated that both carboxylic and hydroxylic functional groups in alginate beads are involved in the metal binding and later reduction of gold (+3) and silver (+1) to gold (0) and silver (0). SEM and X-ray diffraction confirmed the formation of gold and silver nanoparticles.

Adsorption↗

Viability and drug metabolism capacity of alginate-entrapped hepatocytes after cryopreservation.

In the present study we evaluated viability and detoxifying enzyme capacity of cryopreserved hepatocytes from various species, including man, immobilized in calcium alginate gels. Ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase, phenacetin deethylase, pentoxyresorufin O-dealkylase, tolbutamide hydroxylase, S-mephenytoin hydroxylase, dextromethorphan demethylase, and nifedipine oxidation corresponding to the major cytochromes P450 (CYP) involved in xenobiotic metabolism as well as whole glutathione S-transferase (GST) activity were measured using specific substrates and after exposure or not to prototypical inducers. After deep-freeze storage, viability of immobilized hepatocytes was only slightly reduced and most CYP-related monooxygenase activities were well preserved, being expressed at levels close to those measured in unfrozen hepatocyte monolayers. By contrast, total GST activity was decreased by around 50%. However, as did CYP1A- and 3A-related enzymes, rat GST remained capable of responding to prototypical inducers. The fold increases were comparable in unfrozen and frozen immobilized hepatocytes and in unfrozen hepatocyte monolayers. The duration of storage, even when exceeding one year, did not affect viability and functions. In conclusion, after cryopreservation, alginate-entrapped hepatocytes remain highly viable and capable of expressing most detoxifying enzymes at levels close to those expressed in corresponding unfrozen hepatocyte monolayers and of responding to prototypical inducers.

Alginates↗