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PubMed1998

Electra versus Oedipus. Femininity reconsidered.

The author discusses the arguments in favour of an Electra rather than an Oedipus complex to describe the vicissitudes of female development and explores the value of using a different paradigm. She concludes that girls do not have to change their primary object to become female. Pathological forms of the normal ambivalent attachment to the mother are vehement rejection, as with Electra, or the opposite, a close symbiotic bond. Both outcomes testify to the centrality of the maternal love object for the girl, and either can lead to masochistic resolutions of the mother-daughter bond. The girl must steer between the Scylla of a symbiotic illusion vis-a-vis her maternal object and the Charybdis of hatred of it. The inner relationship with the maternal image can foster a woman's development, serve as a source of strength or be a well of pathology. Electra illustrates her preoccupation with her mother in a combination of latent approach and manifest avoidance. Women do turn to their male object of desire, not instead of, but in addition to their first love object, the mother. In healthy development, not the inner mother, but the childhood fantasy of the phallic mother is given up, allowing the difference between the parents to be recognised and genuine heterosexual desire established. Female heterosexuality will always be accompanied by a strong homosexual undercurrent.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2002

Forgiveness: origins, dynamics, psychopathology, and technical relevance.

This paper integrates a diverse and scattered literature to describe the psychodynamic underpinnings of granting and seeking forgiveness. The evolutionary foundations and the developmental substrate of these capacities are elucidated. An individual who fails to make certain intrapsychic achievements may be vulnerable to psychopathological development, as is evident in those who cannot forgive or forgive too readily, constantly or never seek others' forgiveness, cannot accept forgiveness, or show an imbalance between their capacities to forgive themselves and to forgive others. The relevance of various developmental and phenomenological concepts to psychoanalytic technique, including the patient's need to forgive and to be forgiven, is also discussed.

Anger↗
PubMed1993

Psychoanalysis, psychobiology, and homosexuality.

The potential role of biological influences in human sexual orientation was considered more seriously during the early phases of psychoanalysis than in the years since World War II. Recently studies of homosexuality and heterosexuality in the neurosciences have attracted widespread attention both in the scientific and lay communities. The salience of these new data for psychoanalytic theory and practice is just beginning to be explored. In this article, we review research on sexual orientation in the following areas: genetics, crosscultural studies, studies of development in individuals with abnormal prenatal hormone exposure, childhood play patterns, and brain studies in both nonhumans and humans. Differences between male and female homosexuality are explored. We propose that psychoanalytic theory can grow and profit from a careful consideration of new findings in the psychobiology of sexuality, and that the interaction between mind and body is the appropriate purview of psychoanalysis.

Brain↗
PubMed1983

The relationship between developments in self-and peer perception during adolescence.

The hypothesis that self-perceptions would be more advanced developmentally than peer perceptions was assessed. The sample consisted of 80 males between 15 and 18 years of age. A structured interview was employed to obtain descriptions of self and a best friend. These data were coded into systems defining the constructs of differentiation, abstraction, and integration. The study's hypothesis was supported. A developmental model was presented to integrate the data on self and social cognition.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1983

How Oedipus falsifies Popper: psychoanalysis as a normative science.

The scientific status of psychoanalysis has been the subject of continual debate. Influential philosophers of science have challenged the form of its theories and the nature of the evidence offered on their behalf. Some have concluded that the theories are beyond testing--i.e., they can neither be confirmed nor refuted, and psychoanalysis is thus intrinsically unscientific, akin to pseudosciences such as astrology. From that body of criticism, I have chosen for examination and rebuttal the issue of falsifiability. I refute the charge that psychoanalysis is not scientific because its theories are not "falsifiable." On the contrary, I show that psychoanalysis contains theories which make strong and unequivocal statements that are subject to the test of possible falsification. This capacity has been concealed and the falsifiability criticism rendered plausible because of the normative judgments which are latent in discussions of human development and human society. In explicating these judgments, I will move from the philosophy of science to the anthropology and sociology of science (and of the professions). The normative character of psychoanalytic science reinforces the ethical code of the therapeutic profession, a combination which imposes a disciplinary rigidity of the theoretical system.

Behavior↗
PubMed1993

Homosexual and bisexual identity in sex-reassigned female-to-male transsexuals.

Descriptions of female-to-male transsexuals who are sexually attracted to men are rare. This is a report on nine of them. Their awareness of gender dysphoria preceded their awareness of their attraction to men. Their wish to undergo sex reassignment as a means of resolving their gender dysphoria superseded any concerns about their sexual orientation or sexual adaptation after surgery. Several had had sexual relationships with men before sex reassignment which were unsatisfactory because these men viewed our subjects as women. After sex reassignment, the subjects successfully established sexual relationships with gay men; in some of them even penovaginal intercourse was part of their sexual activities. While hormonally and surgically reassigned, none of our subjects had had phalloplasty. All nine subjects were interviewed and given psychological tests measuring sexual satisfaction and psychological adjustment. Their results were compared to those of a group of self-identified gay men. No major differences in sexual satisfaction and psychological adaptation were found. The phenomenon of female-to-male transsexuals who develop a sexual orientation toward men may be more common than previously thought. Regarding female gender dysphoric individuals, our findings challenge the issue of using sexual orientation in classification systems of gender dysphoria syndromes and as a risk factor in the decision regarding sex reassignment. Further, our study invites us to rethink the genital criterion in the assessment of sexual orientation.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

[Child sexual abuse. How to deal with suspected abuse?].

Sexual abuse in children is defined as the exploitation of children by adults for the sexual gratification of the latter. A particular problem is sexual violence within the family. The chronicity of the abuse, by means of which the child is precipitated into role conflicts is typical. Whether inside or outside the family, sexual abuse almost always has negative effects on the child's development. When such abuse is suspected, a gentle physical examination and an empathetic age-adapted psychiatric diagnostic work-up are indicated. The overriding objective of an intervention is to protect the child. The indication of psychotherapy is determined by the severity of the symptomatology. Among other things, prevention strategies are aimed at increasing the autonomy of the child.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2002

Adolescent sexuality and disability.

All human beings are sexual from birth to death and all adolescents, with or without chronic illness or disability, must incorporate appropriate concepts of sexuality into their process of development from child to adult. This chapter reviews normal adolescent development with specific reference to sexuality. Potential effects of chronic illness and disability on this process are reviewed, including coital behavior, sexual abuse, sexual dysfunction, and sexual offending. Management of sexual issues in chronically ill or disabled adolescents is considered, including comments about gynecologic needs of disabled girls.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1981

Theoretical foundations of reaction formation as a defense mechanism.

Among the defense mechanisms, reaction formation is presented as the most stable, pervading the entire personality structure. The source of the defensive energy is explored within the context of drive theory, paralleling superego development and the processes of functional autonomy of other drive derivatives. The dynamics of balancing affect against behavior are analyzed with reference to the adaptive function of compulsion. Reaction formation is shown to relate closely to repression in its capacity for comprehensive impulse negation. the centrality of reaction formation within the constellation of anal characterology is underlined. Implications of the defense are discussed for empirical and clinical research in psychoanalysis.

Defense Mechanisms↗
PubMed1977

[On the diaagnosis of anorexia nervosa in children and adolescents (author's transl)].

The clinical picture of anorexia nervosa is going along with typical statements, specific pathological attitudes and psychodynamic backgrounds of the families involved. This facilities the establishment of the diagnosis already during the first anamnestic interview with parents and patients. Important are: onset of illness, eating behaviour, early childhood development, parents, brothers and sisters, leisure time, mood and personality, sexuality. In most of the cases a speedy hospital admission is necessary, because at this time the onset of the disease lies back months or even years. These circumstances redner the psychotherapy of patients and their families more difficult, and the often life-threatening attitudes of the patients more entrenched.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1981

[Head circumference and brain development. Growth retardation during intrauterine malnutrition and catch-up growth mechanisms (author's transl)].

Today the close correlation between head circumference growth and brain development in the last weeks of gestation and in the first two years of life is no longer disputed. A recently developed formula even allows for calculations of brain weight based upon head circumference data. Between the ages of 32 postmenstrual weeks and six months after expected date of delivery there is a period of very rapid brain growth in which the weight of the brain quadruples. During this growth spurt there exists an increased vulnerability by unfavorable environmental conditions, such as malnutrition and psychosocial deprivation. The erroneous belief still being prevalent that the brain of the fetus and young infant is spared by malnutrition, can be looked upon as disproved by new research results. Severe malnutrition during the brain growth spurt is thought to be a very important non-genetic factor influencing the development of the central nervous system (CNS) and therewith intellectual performance. In the past a permanent growth retardation of head circumference and a reduced intellectual capacity usually was observed in small-for-gestational age infants (SGA). Nowadays, however, there can be found also proofs of successful catch-up growth of head circumference and normal intellectual development after early and high-energy postnatal feeding of SGA infants. The development of SGA infants of even very low birth weight can be supported in such a way that it takes a normal course by providing good environmental conditions, such as appropriate nutrition - especially during the early growth period - and a stimulating environment with abundant attention by the mother.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1994

Childhood abuse, body image disturbance, and eating disorders.

Studies have suggested that women who experience child sexual abuse are at risk for developing symptoms related to anorexia nervosa and bulimia. The purpose of the present study was to examine the relationships among childhood sexual and physical abuse, body image disturbance, and eating disorder symptomatology. Of 670 female college students screened for childhood abuse, 29 sexually abused, 32 physically abused, and 29 nonabused women completed measures of eating disorder symptoms, psychological factors thought to be related to eating disorders, and body image distortion. Contrary to previous reports, there was no evidence that child sexual or physical abuse was associated with the development of body image disturbance. Furthermore, the results did not support the hypothesis that child sexual and physical abuse are related to eating disorder symptomatology. It is suggested that subjects who are victims of child sexual abuse and who are receiving psychotherapy manifest higher rates of a number of different types of psychopathology, including eating disorders.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Models of response to childhood sexual abuse: their implications for treatment.

Childhood sexual abuse (CSA) has been linked to adult mental health problems and indicators of severity of psychiatric illness. There exist large, unexplained individual differences in the presentation of mental health problems following CSA. Complex statistical methodologies allow researchers to examine models of response to CSA and its impact on mental health. Two early models are presented and critiqued. Two more recent models are then presented. It is concluded that whereas no single variable can, on its own, account for individual variation in symptom development, empirically tested models point toward a complex interaction between abuse-related factors, interactions with others (e.g., responses to disclosure, attachment), and individual factors (e.g., attributions, emotion-focused coping) as mediators and moderators of outcome. The implications of increased understanding of the complex interaction of these factors in understanding clinical presentations and in the formulation of treatment plans are explored.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed1979

Ego development and sex attitudes in heterosexual and homosexual men and women.

A comparison was made of heterosexual and homosexual men and women utilizing Loevinger's concept of ego development and focusing on the relationships among ego levels and attitudes toward homosexuality and on personal sex guilt and other sociosexual variables. Previous comparative studies were critically analyzed with respect to the adequacy of definition and description of sampling procedures, and the appropriateness of research question. A pilot study reported here concerns the development of a measure of "attitudes toward homosexuality." The major study utilized 200 subjects who completed an anonymous and lengthy questionnaire. This sample was relatively young, well-educated, white, and Protestant. Self-ratings on the two Kinsey-type scales clearly differentiated the self-identified primarily heterosexual and homosexual groups. In this study there were no significant differences in ego levels between the heterosexual and the homosexual groups, suggesting that ego development and sexual orientation development are independent phenomena. Among both homosexual and heterosexual subjects there were low but significant correlations between higher levels of ego development and more positive attitudes toward homosexuality. More negative attitudes toward homosexuality were correlated with higher levels of personal sex guilt for heterosexual and homosexual men and for heterosexual women. Our measure of sex guilt proved to be related to ego level only for heterosexual males, although the measure of this construct requires additional research and refinement. Other correlates of these variables are also reported.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed1983

On the possible prevention of sexual problems in adolescence.

The author contends that a primary cause of sexual problems is failure to teach children about sex before they reach adolescence. Physical and mental growth are nurtured and supported throughout infancy and childhood, while sexual development is stifled or distorted. As a result children reach adolescence with their natural eroticism maimed. The author pleads for a basic change in the attitudes of adults, so that parents will begin to teach their children about sexuality. By adolescence children should be prepared to understand and accept their capacity for sexual expression and be fully aware of when and how it might or might not be appropriate.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1986

Preventing adolescent pregnancy: meeting the comprehensive range of needs.

Too often, the problem of the pregnant adolescent is approached as if it existed in isolation, disconnected from the remainder of the adolescent's biological and psychosocial environment. Such an approach fails to recognize the interconnectedness of all issues within the adolescent's world, therefore, impeding a successful therapeutic response. In order to administer complete and comprehensive treatment of the problem of teenage pregnancy, the total needs of the pregnant adolescent, the potentially pregnant adolescent and the adolescent male must be addressed. These needs vary with the different stages of adolescent development. During this time in which children learn how to become adults by observing their world and taking cues from the environment, the varying needs are: Early Adolescence--to develop the ability to perceive the long range consequences of their current actions and decisions; to define the boundaries of their independence while relying on major authority figures; and to make important decisions and develop the operational connection between the sex act and birth control. Mid Adolescence--to achieve emancipation from the family and all other authority; to identify with a chosen peer group; to develop an identified sexual identity; and to apply an appreciation for the connection between the sex act and pregnancy to themselves. Late adolescence--to plan for the future and to establish some kind of family. This psychological and social maturational process occurs immediately before, during and after the pubertal growth period. In the United States today, it usually occupies the years between 12 and 21 years.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1981

Biosocial perspectives on the development of the proceptive, acceptive and conceptive phases of eroticism.

The absence of an interdisciplinary science of sexology has resulted in sexuality being narrowly defined by the particular ideology of the various scientific disciplines. This review presents a theoretical model to integrate the interdisciplinary data related to the development of the three phases of eroticism. A biosocial integration of the multiple aspects of eroticism will hopefully generate research and psychotherapeutic innovations not plagued by mind-body dichotomization. The emphasis of this paper is on the solicitation, attraction and pair-bonding phase of eroticism, since this has been more neglected by sexologists than the copulatory and conceptive phases.

Animals↗
PubMed1993

["I have never said anything"--a retrospective biographical study of sexual abuse of boys].

A summation will be provided concerning the extent of the sexual abuse of boys and the consequences arising there from. A qualitative study involving 10 interviews with men who were abused will be introduced. Previous studies have tended to be one sided concerning the emphasis placed on the development from having been abused, to becoming an abuser. Through our research we have discovered two additional types of coping mechanisms outside the established criteria. These being, complete avoidance of known masculine behaviour and, the emulating of known masculine behaviour thus creating a facade to disguise insecurities. In conclusion, specific gender characteristics concerning the coping patterns of abused boys will be discussed.

Adaptation, Psychological↗