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PubMedDate not supplied

Modification of severe behaviour problems following herpes simplex encephalitis.

Violent and sexually disinhibited behaviour together with poor self-care developed in a 38-year-old teacher following herpes simplex encephalitis. These behaviours were sufficiently severe to make rehabilitation difficult and return to the community impossible. Initially, only violent behaviour was treated, both by medication and a behaviour programme, and sexual disinhibition subsequently by the latter. In order to implement the programme a special (psychiatric) nurse was required on a 24 h basis. The incidence of violent behaviour was reduced from up to 55 times per day to zero over a period of 2 months. Whether this was affected by medication or behaviour management, or by spontaneous recovery, is discussed. Sexual disinhibition was eliminated in supervised settings, but continued to occur if left unsupervised and this improvement resulted from behaviour management. Poor personal hygiene also improved markedly over the 6-month period. The goal of returning the patient home to live with her family was achieved and she remained there at follow-up. This intervention was carried out in a rehabilitation unit that does not specialize in the treatment of such cases; clearly this has implications for cost and quality of care.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

The treatment of avoidance behaviour following severe brain injury by satiation through negative practice.

Brain-injured patients may frequently develop behaviour disorders in order to avoid participating in rehabilitation activities. In recent years, the use of behaviour modification techniques, particularly the use of positive reinforcement and time-out, has been increasingly reported in the literature as a means of remediating behaviour disturbance in this population. However, reward- or extinction-based programmes are generally not effective in the treatment of avoidance behaviours as they may be ineffective or, at worst, encourage further avoidance of rehabilitation activities. This paper, describes the use of satiation through negative practice in the successful treatment of a severely brain-injured patient whose behaviour, in the form of prolonged shouting, had previously not responded to the range of behavioural techniques used previously with this population. Two successive treatment programmes that were used in an attempt to satiate shouting are presented. Significant reductions in both the frequency and duration of shouting were found, enabling physical and functional gains to be made through successful participation in previously avoided rehabilitation activities. The validity of the use of this technique in the treatment of avoidance behaviour in brain-injured patients is discussed.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Psychotropic-absent behavioural improvement following severe traumatic brain injury.

We present a case study in which severe agitation was reduced and independent functioning increased in a traumatically brain-injured individual. The subject's behaviour for the year prior to admission was characterized by increasing rates of maladaptive behaviours and corresponding increases in pharmacological attempts at behaviour management. Upon admission, the subject was totally dependent on others for all activities of daily living. A data-based systematic withdrawal of a number of psychotropic medications and the addition of an anticonvulsant medication was conducted in an AB experimental design. Reductions of medications in conjunction with behavioural interventions resulted in immediate reduction in rate of maladaptive behaviours. Further reductions in psychotropic medications and the addition of the anticonvulsant medication resulted in continued rapid deceleration of rate of occurrence of maladaptive behaviours with a concomitant increase in lucid statements and independent functioning. A follow-up conducted at 6 months showed the subject to be independent in performance of activities of daily living in a semi-independent living situation, with maladaptive behaviours continuing to be well managed.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Behaviour rehabilitation of the challenging client in less restrictive settings.

Individuals who have sustained traumatic brain injury may provide friends, family, and rehabilitation professionals with challenges through an increased likelihood of their engaging in socially inappropriate behaviours. At extremes the inappropriate behaviours include vocal and physical assault, non-compliance, self-injurious behaviours, elopement, and property destruction. While these maladaptive behaviours are by themselves troublesome, for some individuals they provide severe barriers to rehabilitation. One option for the challenging rehabilitation client is a neurobehavioural programme, typically offering an access-limited or otherwise secure physical environment and which focuses on behaviour reduction. While outcomes from neurobehavioural programmes are typically positive, their expense and the negative connotations of this type of programme will at times dissuade family members from enrolling the client. We describe an alternative, less restrictive behavioural programme operated in the physical and social context of a larger, more typical community-based rehabilitation programme for traumatically brain-injured individuals. This programme has been in operation for nearly three years, successfully serving more than 200 clients, of which approximately 20% posed behaviour management problems. Identified variables accounting for these successes include: formal guidelines for programme development, staff training and monitoring, data collection, integration of an interdisciplinary team, discharge planning and post-discharge follow-up. We provide a general programme description followed by discussions of four brief case studies to illustrate basic principles of the programme. Programme strengths are discussed, as are constraints placed on the programme by the physical and social environments in which it operates.

Activities of Daily Living↗
PubMed1986

Auditory brainstem responses and behavioural responses in pre-term infants.

Auditory brainstem responses (ABRs) and behavioural thresholds were studied in 25 pre-term infants with post-conceptional ages of approximately 40 weeks to ascertain whether there were differences in the ABR between normal preterm and full-term new born infants to compare behavioural thresholds around 40 weeks of post-conceptional age and to follow changes of their behavioural thresholds in the first year of life. ABR thresholds, peak latencies of Waves I and V and the I-V peak interwave latency were measured. Behavioural audiometric thresholds to pure tones were determined through behavioural observation audiometry and conditioned orientation-reflex audiometry. The ABR thresholds of the pre-term infants, whether they were small for date (SFD) or appropriate for date (AFD), were in the normal ranges of the controls. Moreover, there were no significant differences between either the SFD or the AFD group and controls, as far as Wave I or V latency or I-V interval are concerned. Thus, the ABR was apparently unaffected by the infant being small-for dates. Behavioural audiometry disclosed that all normal full-term infants responded to pure tone stimuli, with mean thresholds of 85 dB, while only 42% of AFD and 30% of SFD would respond to pure tone stimuli at 90 dB or less. Behavioural thresholds caught up with the normal range by 12 months of age, except for a few infants.

Audiometry↗
PubMed1998

Mineralocorticoid receptor blockade inhibits aggressive behaviour in male rats.

Previous experiments have demonstrated that aggressive behaviour of male rats in a territorial setting is facilitated by corticosterone. Moreover, the inhibition of the endogenous corticosterone response prevents agonistic behaviour. The aim of the present paper was to investigate the effect of mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) blockade on the expression of aggressive behaviour at the beginning of the dark phase, when MRs are mostly occupied due to the diurnal peak of corticosterone secretion. High levels of aggressive behaviour were induced in male Wistar rats cohabiting with females by exposing them 3 times to an intruder male rat of smaller size. Intruder males were introduced at the beginning of the active period on every second day for 20 minutes, while the female was temporarily removed. A gradual increase in the number of biting attacks was noticed, the rats performing 6.7 +/- 2.0 attacks per 20 min on the last day (n=8). One hour before the fourth encounter rats were injected with the MR blocker spironolactone (10 mg/kg). Attacking behaviour was almost totally abolished (0.87 +/- .35 attacks per 20 min; n=8). Vehicle injections were ineffective (9.3 +/- 2.1 attacks per 20 min; n=8). Offensive threats underwent similar changes while other behaviours showed non-significant variation, with the exception of resting which increased towards the end of the observation period. The time course of these effects showed that the primary action was on offensive aggressive behaviour. This report is the first to show that the almost total MR occupancy at the beginning of the dark (active) period of the day is a prerequisite for the expression of aggressiveness in response to a social challenge.

Aggression↗
PubMed1999

AIDS related knowledge and sexual behaviour among commercial farm residents in Zimbabwe.

OBJECTIVE: To describe sexual behaviour among residents of commercial farms in Zimbabwe, their gender-specific differences; to examine implications of these for HIV/AIDS transmission. DESIGN: A cross sectional descriptive study. SETTING: Three commercial farming communities near Harare, Zimbabwe. SUBJECTS: Convenience sample of 218 adult (age 18+, or ever married) farm residents. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Number of sexual partners, secondary sexual relationships outside marriage, condom ever-use, first sexual partner, sexually transmitted disease (STD) experience, unprompted knowledge of HIV. RESULTS: Knowledge of HIV transmission was high, with eight to 88% of respondents reporting various correct means of transmission. Males reported engaging in riskier behaviour than females, with 60% of currently married males (n = 81) reporting extra marital affairs compared to 4% of currently married females (n = 91) (OR: 4.02; 95% CI: 1.8 to 9.04). Males were more likely than females to report a second or further marriage (OR: 37.9; 95% CI: 16.01 to 92.1). Females were more likely than men to report first sexual partner as spouse. Fourteen percent of respondents had children of various ages outside their current union. Reported STD experiences under various circumstances were negligible with no differences by sex. CONCLUSION: While HIV/AIDS prevention measures largely rely on individual behavioural change, preventive efforts should also encompass differences in sexual behaviour between categories like male and female. Importantly, this will determine composition of preventive policy, but also allow a clearer determination of trends based on the gender-specific behaviours. There is also need for more research work that attends to determinants of reporting behaviour beyond aspects of reported behaviour per se.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1999

An overview of behaviour difficulties found in long-term elderly care settings.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: To provide an understanding of the nature and prevalence of behaviour difficulties in long-term care facilities, to compare care settings and comment on the appropriateness of the need for specialist care. DESIGN: Nurses or carers implemented two rating scales in randomly selected settings. SETTING: Nursing homes, residential homes and NHS elderly long-stay wards. SUBJECTS: Elderly long-stay patients. MAIN RESULTS: NHS and nursing home long-term care facilities show similar behaviour difficulties, with nursing homes experiencing more behaviour manifestations in most cases. Residential facilities have behaviour difficulties to a lesser extent. CONCLUSIONS: Nursing homes have limited formal psychiatric intervention compared to NHS settings. Behaviour difficulties result in increased work for general practitioners and increased hospital referrals. More prospective research is required into the antecedents, effects and treatments of patients with behaviour difficulties in nursing homes. For example, it may be appropriate that specialist input is provided for nursing homes in order to implement behaviour intentions and contribute to the reduction of GP callouts and pharmacological interventions.

Aged↗
PubMed1999

Somnambulistic-like behaviour in patients attending a lithium clinic.

The prevalence of somnambulistic-like behaviour related to treatment with lithium alone or in combination with other psychotropic medications was evaluated in patients attending a lithium clinic. A written questionnaire on somnambulistic-like behaviour was completed by 389 patients. Information was provided on the time of occurrence, frequency and severity of the episodes, the presence of childhood somnambulism, and the temporal relationship between psychiatric treatment and somnambulistic-like behaviour. Twenty-seven (27) patients (6.9%) presented sleepwalking behaviour related to the onset of treatment with lithium alone or in combination with other psychotropic drugs. Forty-five patients (11.6%) reported childhood somnambulism and 12 of them (27%) had their childhood somnambulism reactivated by the medication. Most patients had a diagnosis of bipolar affective disorder but somnambulistic-like behaviour also occurred in patients with other axis 1 diagnosis. Sleep-related violence was seldomly reported. Therefore, lithium alone or in combination with other psychotropic drugs may induce somnambulistic-like behaviour. A history of childhood somnambulism may increase the risk of developing sleepwalking behaviour while under psychotropic drugs treatment.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

Environmental worry: a concept to explain differences in environmentally conscious behaviour?

The purpose of the present study was to determine the validity of a scale for measuring environmental worry. The environmental worry scale was used in a study with employees at three medium-sized companies in East Germany who were exposed to environmental problems (N = 74). Additionally, questionnaires were used to investigate the influence of environmental worry on environmentally conscious behaviour. The assumption was that a higher amount of environmental worry would induce a more careful use of resources. Furthermore, it was investigated which predicting factors may determine environmentally conscious behaviour. Following the Theory of Reasoned Action, we assessed attitude towards the environment, social identity, social norms, and environmentally conscious behaviour as well as environmental worry. Environmentally conscious behaviour was investigated as relating to avoidance of creating waste, separation of waste, environmental protection activities, saving of resources and use of toxic substances. The structure of factors determining the anxiety scale was confirmed; however, sex or age seemed to have no effects. A higher level of education correlated to less environmental worry in a significant way. A correlation between environmental worry and environmentally conscious behaviour could not be proven. However, the relationship between environmental worry, attitudes towards the environment, and social norms was significant. Our data suggest that for a modification of environmentally conscious behaviour, measures aimed at changing the social norm are more successful than those aimed at changing individual attitudes. Moreover, increased environmental worry does not seem to increase environmentally friendly behaviour.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

Attitudes of Bulgarian women toward various forms of specific sexual behaviour.

INTRODUCTION: Personal attitudes determine the individual sexual behaviour and safe sexual practice. The attitudes of Bulgarian women toward some forms of sexual behaviour leading to high risk of unwanted pregnancy and HIV-transmission are poorly investigated. AIM: The aim of the study is to investigate the attitudes of Bulgarian women toward premarital intercourse, oral-genital sex, heterosexual anal intercourse and homosexual behaviour, as well as the factors influencing these attitudes. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The sample included 243 randomly selected women with an age range of 14 to 40 years with at least one pregnancy by the moment of the study. Each subject completed a self-reported questionnaire about sociodemographic characteristics and items concerning different aspects of sexual behaviour. RESULTS: Most of the women (70.3%) consider premarital sexual intercourse as totally natural, while other 20.1%--that it is acceptable only if the couple is engaged. The oral-genital sex is accepted by 69.2%. Only 8.2% of the respondents consider that heterosexual anal intercourse is normal, while homosexual behaviour is regarded as normal by 8.1% of the interviewed women. The higher the educational level of the respondents, the more liberal views they report about premarital sexual intercourse (P < 0.001) and oral-genital contact (P < 0.01). Women grown up in urban areas are more likely to accept premarital coitus and oral-genital sex as normal--(P < 0.05, P < 0.05) as well as those who have received information about contraception from friends/peers (P < 0.05, P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Most of Bulgarian women have liberal attitudes toward premarital intercourse and oral sex and these behaviours could be regarded as components of their usual sexual practice. These results may provide an useful basis for further studies of the sexual attitudes and behaviour, as well as for designing optimal educational programs.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2000

Behavioural intervention in the management of compliance in young type-I diabetics.

OBJECTIVES: a) To examine the efficacy of a behavioural intervention programme in the management of compliance in young Type I diabetics, b) To examine the efficacy of a behavioural management programme in enhancing metabolic control in young Type I diabetics, c) To examine the effect of behavioural intervention on level of diabetes knowledge and quality of life in young Type I diabetics. METHODS: A total of 40 patients (Experimental group n = 20, Control group n = 20) was selected from local hospitals' pediatric, endocrinology and diabetology units. The experimental group received 15 individual sessions of behavioural intervention, consisting of behavioural counseling for family and significant others, relaxation, diabetes education and specific behavioural and cognitive strategies such as reinforcement, target-setting and cognitive restructuring. Assessment was carried out on various psychological measures as well as the glycosylated hemoglobin test (HbA1), at pre and post treatment periods. RESULTS: The scores of the two groups were compared at post treatment point. Results indicate that there was significant improvement in the experimental group in compliance and metabolic control. There were also significant changes noted in the level of diabetes knowledge as well as the reported quality of life. These changes in compliance and metabolic control were maintained at a three month follow-up period. CONCLUSIONS: Behavioural intervention can be included as an effective adjunct to routine medical care in the management of young Type I diabetics, especially in the management of compliance and metabolic control, enhancement of knowledge and quality of life.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed1996

Integration of molecular biological techniques and behavioural pharmacology.

The rapidly advancing technology in the area of molecular neuroscience has greatly expanded the tools available to behavioural pharmacologists for investigating the molecular bases underlying the interrelation of pharmacological agents and behaviour. Strategies such as gene targeted knockout mutations, expression of an exogenous transgene, as well as the disruption of the cellular expression of genes with antisense oligonucleotides, are being successfully used to study normal and impaired behavioural function. Advantages of these genetic methods include the ability to manipulate systems for which selective pharmacological ligands do not exist, and the opportunity to study the interaction between genotype and environment without having to rely on spontaneously occurring mutants or selective breeding programmes. By targeting particular genes, questions can be asked about how genes control neuronal function and how manipulations of these genes affect behaviour. In particular, these strategies have been applied to studies of the molecular bases for disrupted behaviours, the behavioural actions of psychoactive drugs, and models of neuropsychiatric and neuropathological disorders. These emerging molecular biological techniques complement traditional pharmacological analysis to provide a very powerful approach with which to study the molecular correlates of behavioural pharmacology.

Journal Article↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Type A behaviour and life events as risk factors for cerebral infarct].

INTRODUCTION: The role of psychosocial factors in cerebral infarct has been little studied and is therefore still undefined. OBJECTIVE and methods. To evaluate the effect of a pattern of behaviour which predisposes to stress, and of life events, on the occurrence of cerebral infarct, we studied a group and control involving 88 patients with cerebral infarcts diagnosed clinically and on imaging studies, and a control group of 99 persons paired for age and sex who lived in our health district. To evaluate the behaviour pattern we used Jenkins abbreviated questionnaire and for life events the Holmes and Rahe questionnaire. RESULTS: The type A behaviour pattern had a highly statistically significant association with cerebral infarct, which was not associated with the effects of other variables. This relation was the greater the lower the age of the person. It was not seen after the age of 75 years. The behaviour pattern was not related to arterial hypertension or with the aetiopathological mechanisms of the patients. In relation to the life events questionnaire, the number of events was significantly associated in the group of patients, but not with the total score of the questionnaire. However, the latter was significantly related to hypertensive patients and persons with a type A behaviour pattern. The commonest life events in both groups were related to the death or health problems of family members, the previous illnesses of the person and to financial and work problems. CONCLUSION: The type A behaviour pattern is individually associated with cerebral infarct, whilst stressful life events were involved in the cerebral infarcts of hypertensive and type A behaviour patients.

Aged↗
PubMed2002

A new method to assess the fluidodynamic behaviour of an angiographic contrast agent.

PURPOSE: To propose a new method for the assessment of the fluidodynamic behaviour of angiographic contrast agents. The method enables measurement of the spatial distribution and time dependence of the contrast agent along a pseudo-vessel on images obtained with an X-ray image intensifier. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A particular phantom was devised consisting of a plexiglas box with an insert into which a latex tube with a 0.4 cm in diameter was placed in order to simulate the tortuous flow of a blood vessel. The box, which is filled with water to simulate the thickness of a normal patient, is connected to an injection and pumping system which serve to keep the contrast agent flowing in the pseudo-vessel tube. The pseudo-vessel tube was filled with plain water in one case and with saline solution in another case to assess their different dilution capabilities. The phantom and the flow of contrast agent were imaged with a conventional X-ray image intensifier system and the images were stored in digital format during 35 second acquisitions at a speed of 4 frames per second; for any frame it is possible to measure the mathematical contrast in any position in the image. Further, a diagram showing the time dependence of the spatial distribution of the mathematical contrast is proposed. The X axis shows the spatial distribution of the mathematical contrast, whereas the Y axis shows its temporal variation with a gray level proportional to the mathematical contrast value. By building an horizontal profile of this diagram one can obtain the spatial distribution at a fixed time, while by building a vertical profile one can obtain the temporal variation at a fixed point. Several different contrast agents were so tested. RESULTS: The proposed method allows different fluido-dynamic behaviour patterns of contrast agents and flowing media to be shown. Owing to the different chemical characteristics of water and saline solution these media have different dilution capabilities (higher for water) and this is well demonstrated by the diagram profiles obtained for each. The system has also allowed the detection of a particular behaviour of some contrast agents, whose spatial distribution was non uniform even in the last frames, thus showing a tendency to maintain their bolus-nature over time. An interesting feature which can be noticed in all the temporal profiles is the presence of a "pre-bolus", i.e. the contrast is higher at the very beginning of the flow, then decreases and after some time starts to increase again. Though the initial contrast value obviously depends on the iodine concentration employed, the method shows the contrast variation as a function of time is different for different contrast agents. CONCLUSIONS: The method and the equipment proposed provide a good description of the fluidodynamic behaviour of different contrast agents, but do not constitute a reference method for testing haemodynamic behaviour which, "in vivo", is obviously affected by several other chemical and metabolic factors. However, the method allows evaluation of the contrast agents from a physical and fluidodynamic point of view, showing that the iodine content is not the only feature affecting their behaviour. The method can be used in quality control to test the constancy of the physical behaviour of different contrast agents.

Angiography↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Behaviour of older people admitted for residential respite care.

The aim of this pilot study was to determine whether residential respite care is used because of disruptive behaviour displayed by older people. The specific objectives were to 1) characterise older people being admitted for residential respite care, 2) obtain a preliminary estimate of the proportion of older people in residential respite care because of disruptive behaviour, and, 3) examine the relationship between residential respite care and disruptive behaviour. A quantitative approach using a cross-sectional survey was employed. The respite recipients were 35 older people with a mean age of 81.5 years (range 67-96 years). The respite recipients had been admitted for residential respite care to aged care hostels and nursing homes in a provincial city and its surrounding rural area. Nurses rated disruptive behaviour using the Dementia Behavior Disturbance Scale (DBDS). Additional reliability data for the DBDS are provided. The study found that the largest specific group of residential respite care users were widows (31.4%) who lived alone in their own home. The reason for over half (51.4%) of the residential respite admissions was to give a carer a 'break' from the older person. Although a large proportion (80%) of respite recipients were rated as having disruptive behaviour, the proportion of admissions because of disruptive behaviour was much less (28.6%). People with dementia (37.1%) scored significantly higher than people without dementia on the DBDS [F (1,33)=15.57, p<0.001]. Older people with dementia were prescribed a greater number of psychotropic medications. It is concluded that despite residential respite care being offered primarily to assist with carer burden it is not being used mainly for older people whose behaviour is problematic for the carers.

Aged↗
PubMed2002

[The course of behaviour changes in children with attention deficit and hyperactivity after drug treatment].

INTRODUCTION: Several studies have reported differences in behaviour in patients with various subtypes of attention deficit with hyperactivity and the benefits of psychostimulant medication in the treatment of behaviour problems of patients with the attention deficit hyperactivity syndrome (TDAH). OBJECTIVES: 1. To determine possible differences in behaviour between patients with subtypes of the attention deficit hyperactivity disorder; 2. To analyze the efficacy of methylphenidate on behaviour in three subtypes of TDAH, evaluated on the opinions of patients and teachers. PATIENTS AND METHODS: A total of 90 children were studied: 39 children with TDAH-C; 36 with TDAH-1 and 15 with TDAH-H/I. All patients were given 0.5 mg/kg of methylphenidate for a period of three months, once in the morning and once in the afternoon. RESULTS: The results show that the children with the three subtypes of TDAH have significant differences in all the behaviour variables studied except for the variable timidity anxiety, in which no differences were observed between the subtypes of TDAH. Statistical analysis also showed that children with all three subtypes of TDAH improved significantly with regard to most of the aspects of behaviour studied after psychostimulant medication, in the opinions of parents and teachers. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings are similar to those of other studies and give fresh data on the behaviour and advantages of methylphenidate in the new subtype included in the DSM-1V, the predominantly hyperactive impulsive type.

Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity↗
PubMed2002

Anorexic behaviour and attitudes among female medical and nursing students at a private university hospital.

OBJECTIVE: To study the anorexic behaviour and attitude among female medical and nursing students in a tertiary care hospital. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: A cross-sectional survey to determine the proportion of anorexic behaviour among female medical and nursing students at The Aga Khan University Hospital Karachi was conducted. A multistaged sampling technique was utilized in which our study population was first divided according to field of enrollment (medical or nursing school) and then stratified by class. Within each stratum, we used convenience sampling due to time and availability constraints. We utilized a modified Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-26) to collect data. The Eating Attitude Test is probably the most widely used standardized measure of symptoms characteristic of eating disorders, including anorexia nervosa. RESULTS: A total of 180 female students were interviewed. Ninety-four (52.2%) were medical students and 86 (47.8%) were nursing students. Among the 94 medical students, 26 (27.7%) were from first year, 14 (14.9%) from second year, 15 (16.0%) from third year, 20 (21.3%) from fourth year and 19 (20.2%) from the final year of medical college. Among the 86 nursing students 34 (39.5%) were from first year, 23 (26.7%) from second year, 27 (31.4%) from third year and 2 (2.4%) from fourth year. The proportion of anorexic behaviour among medical students was 8.0%, 7.1% and 20.0% in first, third and fourth years respectively. No individuals with anorexic behaviour were found in second and fifth years. The total proportion of anorexic behaviour among female health care students was 21.7%. CONCLUSION: Results showed a 21.7% prevalence of anorexic behaviour, a figure much higher than that reported in similar studies conducted in Asia. We also found that the proportion was much higher among female nursing students as compared to female medical students. A previous visit to a psychiatrist for reasons other than eating disorders was found to be associated with anorexic behaviour.

Adult↗