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PubMed1990

Control of tropical theileriosis (Theileria annulata infection) of cattle.

Tropical bovine theileriosis caused by Theileria annulata and transmitted by ticks of the genus Hyalomma may be controlled by one or more of the following methods: i) management, with particular emphasis on movement control; ii) vector control by application of acaricides, preventing transmission of disease; iii) treatment of clinical disease using specific chemotherapeutics; iv) immunization with live vaccines; and v) the use of cattle resistant to ticks or the disease. Of these the most important and effective control method is the use of a live cell culture vaccine attenuated by prolonged culture in vitro of mononuclear cells persistently infected with macroschizonts of T. annulata. This vaccine, used chiefly in susceptible taurine dairy cattle, can now be complemented by using novel chemotherapeutic naphthoquinones--parvaquone and buparvaquone--which are very effective in treatment of the clinical disease in these valuable cattle.

Animal Husbandry↗
PubMed1997

Susceptibility of immature Ixodes scapularis (Acari:Ixodidae) to plant-derived acaricides.

Plant-derived acaricides, extracted from various botanical species, and commercially available phytochemicals were evaluated for biological activity against immature Ixodes scapularis (Say) using the disposable pipet method. In addition, residual activity of the plant extracts was determined. Of the 13 plant extracts tested, 9 exhibited biological activity with Alaska yellow cedar, Chamaecyparis nootkatensis (D. Don) Spach., being the most effective against the nymphal ticks (LC50 = 0.151% wt:vol) and eastern red cedar, Juniperus virginiana L., showing the greatest activity against larval ticks (LC50 = .001% wt:vol). The commercially available products were significantly less active than the plant extracts we prepared, but some commercial compounds did exhibit limited activity. Only the Alaska yellow cedar exhibited any residual activity that lasted 21 d after treatment.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Two feeding-induced proteins from the male gonad trigger engorgement of the female tick Amblyomma hebraeum.

Most female ixodid ticks, once mated, feed to repletion within 6-10 days. Previous studies indicate that an engorgement factor (EF), passed to the female during copulation, may be the stimulus for engorgement. Here, we show that extracts of the testis/vas deferens of fed (but not unfed) male Amblyomma hebraeum contain EF bioactivity when injected into the hemocoel of feeding virgins. We have produced recombinant proteins (recproteins) from 28 feeding-induced genes in the male gonad and have identified a recombinant A. hebraeum engorgement factor (recAhEF) among these recproteins. recAhEF is a combination of two peptides, recAhEFalpha (16.1 kDa) and recAhEFbeta (11.6 kDa), neither of which has bioactivity on its own. recAhEF also stimulates salivary gland degeneration and partial development of the ovary, suggesting that it may be the same material as another male gonadal protein from this tick, male factor. We propose the name "voraxin" for the natural EF of ticks. When normal mated females were put on a rabbit immunized against recAhEF, 74% failed to feed beyond one-tenth the normal engorged weight within 14 days whereas all mated ticks put on a control rabbit engorged normally (mean duration of 8.8 +/- 0.8 days). This result constitutes preliminary evidence that an anti-tick vaccine might be developed from voraxin.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed1997

Efficacy of acaricidal tags and pour-on as prophylaxis against ticks and louping-ill in red grouse.

This paper examines the efficacy of 10% lambdacyhalothrin-impregnated plastic tags and a deltamethrin pour-on preparation in protecting red grouse chicks from parasitism by ticks and subsequent infection with the louping-ill virus. In 1995, ten red grouse hens (Lagopus lagopus scoticus) in a free-living population in north-east Scotland were fitted with lambdacyhalothrin-impregnated plastic tags, glued to radio transmitters. Chicks of more than 10 days of age from a further ten untreated radio-collared hens were caught and fitted with individual tags to the ptagium. Both treatments significantly reduced tick burdens in the short term. The number of larvae and nymphs on chicks up to 45 days was less under both treatments than on control chicks and tagged chicks had fewer nymphs than chicks from treated hens. Nevertheless, treatments did not reduce viral infection rates nor increase survival to 10 weeks, possibly explained by incomplete treatment of tagged broods and/or direct or indirect mortality due to tags. In 1996 chicks in ten broods from hens with radio transmitters were individually treated at 14 days of age at a rate of 1 mg/kg of chick with a deltamethrin pour-on preparation. This preparation significantly reduced the number of larvae and nymphs on grouse chicks 7-10 days after application below the number on untreated controls. At 20 days from application, however, only larval numbers were lower on treated chicks. Nevertheless louping-ill virus infection prevalences were significantly reduced at 35 days of age and survival of chicks to 10 weeks increased.

Animals↗
PubMed1979

Tick infestations and tick-borne diseases in Zimbabwe Rhodesia.

The distribution of tick species in Zimbabwe Rhodesia is significantly influenced by land utilization practices. The most commonly occurring species in the over-grazed tribal areas is Boophilus decoloratus. By contrast, well-managed commercial farms and ranches support a wide range of tick species, the most important of which is Rhipicephalus appendiculatus. Until recently tick-borne diseases of cattle were efficiently controlled through dipping. The low incidence of disease was an important factor contributing to over-grazing in tribal areas. Between 1973 and 1978 political unrest resulted in a collapse of the dipping service in tribal areas. Populations of B. decoloratus built up and outbreaks of babesiosis and anaplasmosis occurred, normally between one and three years after the cessation of dipping. Reduced grazing pressure after the initial disease waves resulted in increased grass cover, allowing species such as R. appendiculatus and Amblyomma hebraeum to become re-established. Outbreaks of theileriosis and heartwater usually followed, decimating the already depleted herds. The heavy cattle mortality resulted from lack of immunity to tick-borne diseases, as a result of efficient disease control through dipping in previous years.

Animals↗
PubMed1988

Effect of mercury vapour on the non-protein thiol content and respiration rate of eggs of the cattle tick Boophilus microplus (Acari: Ixodidae).

With continuous and ultimately lethal exposure of eggs of Boophilus microplus to mercury vapour, respiration and non-protein thiol decreased to low levels. With sub-lethal exposure, respiration decreased initially and then increased, whereas non-protein thiol (largely glutathione) increased initially and then decreased. This initial increase in glutathione (GSH) which probably resulted from an attempt by the organism to control or reverse the biochemical lesion, did not arise from the oxidized form (GSSG) through a shift in the equilibrium from right to left thus: 2GSH in equilibrium GSSG + 2H+ + 2e-. The significance of the results are discussed in relation to theories of GSH function and of Hg toxicity. The possible application of mercurials in tick control is discussed.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

The economic impacts of endemic diseases and disease control programmes.

The authors discuss the evaluation of the economic impacts of endemic livestock diseases, and economic issues in control of these diseases. Particular attention is focused on helminths and on endemic vector-transmitted infections (particularly ticks and tick-borne diseases). Decisions relating to disease control have to be made by government and by the producer. Government requires information on the level of control to adopt, the extent of involvement needed, and how to fund animal health programmes (particularly how to share costs between taxpayers and livestock producers). Individual producers require information as to how much effort to invest in disease control, including information collection effort, and how to design control strategies. Economics can shed light on these issues. However, experience suggests that animal health policies are particularly difficult to evaluate from an economic viewpoint, with complex relationships between animal health, production impacts, market access, and non-production benefits of livestock. While little information is available concerning the cost of helminth diseases, many estimates have been made of the costs of ticks and tick-borne diseases at a regional and national level, sometimes demonstrating that eradication is warranted.

Africa↗
PubMed1998

Human granulocytic ehrlichiosis in New York.

BACKGROUND: Human granulocytic ehrlichiosis (HGE), a potentially fatal tick-borne disease, was first described in the upper Midwest in 1994. Following reports of suspected cases of ehrlichiosis from New York physicians, descriptive and case-control studies were conducted to characterize the epidemiology and risk factors for HGE in New York residents. METHODS: Descriptive data were gathered from surveillance and laboratory reports and hospital records. A confirmed case was defined as either (1) a 4-fold change in total antibody titer to Ehrlichia equi by indirect immunofluorescence or (2) a polymerase chain reaction assay positive for Ehrlichia phagocytophila/E equi group DNA. A probable case was defined as an acute febrile illness and either (1) a single E equi titer greater than or equal to 80 or (2) morulae on a peripheral blood smear. The case-control study included patients with confirmed HGE 18 years of age or older with the onset of disease in 1995 and 2 to 3 neighborhood-matched controls. RESULTS: During 1994 and 1995, the New York State Department of Health, Albany, received reports of 241 residents who were tested for HGE; 30 met the confirmed case definition and 34 met the probable case definition. The median age of patients was 46 years (age range, 9-90 years), 35 (55%) were male, and 25 (45%) were hospitalized. Fever, headache, malaise, and myalgia were the most frequently reported symptoms. Fifty-six (88%) of the 64 patients resided in areas in which Lyme disease is hyperendemic. In the case-control analysis, cases were more likely than controls to have sustained a tick bite during 1995 (matched odds ratio, 5.0; 95% confidence interval, 0.9-49.8). Cases and controls did not differ by occupational exposure to ticks, underlying chronic diseases, or measures taken to prevent tick bites. CONCLUSIONS: This study, which, to our knowledge, is the first population-based study of HGE, demonstrates the recent recognition of HGE in the state of New York. Control measures should be integrated with those for Lyme disease and should focus on minimizing contact with ticks and obtaining early treatment for infection.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[The brown dog tick, Rhipicephalus sanguineus (Ixodidae), in Germany: an epidemiologic study and control measures].

Between January and December 1995 infestations with Rhipicephalus sanguineus were established in 22 dogs in Germany. Out of these 22 animals 2 originated from the endemic area of this tick species, Spain and the Dominican Republic and 11 dogs accompanied their owner to the Mediterranean countries, 5 to Italy, 3 to France, 2 to Spain and 1 animal to Greece. Six dogs had never left Germany and with 3 dogs the way of infestation could not be reconstructed. In 16 cases an abundant occurrence of R. sanguineus in homes was reported, whereby in 5 homes also men were infected. An infection with Ehrlichia canis was diagnosed in the dog which originated from Spain and in one animal which had never left Germany.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Detection and characterization of amitraz resistance in the southern cattle tick, Boophilus microplus (Acari: Ixodidae).

Amitraz, a formamidine acaricide, plays an important role in the control of the southern cattle tick, Boophilus microplus (Canestrini), and other tick species that infest cattle, dogs, and wild animals. Although resistance to amitraz in B. microplus was previously reported in several countries, the actual measurement of the level of amitraz resistance in ticks has been difficult to determine due to the lack of a proper bioassay technique. We conducted a survey, by using a newly reported technique that was a modification of the standard Food and Agriculture Organization larval packet test, to measure the levels of resistance to amitraz in 15 strains of B. microplus from four major cattle-producing states in Mexico. Low-order resistance (1.68- to 4.58-fold) was detected in 11 of those strains. Our laboratory selection using amitraz on larvae of the Santa Luiza strain, which originated from Brazil, achieved a resistance ratio of 153.93 at F6, indicating the potential for high resistance to this acaricide in B. microplus. Both triphenylphosphate and piperonyl butoxide significantly synergized amitraz toxicity in both resistant and susceptible tick strains. Diethyl maleate synergized amitraz toxicity in one resistant strain but had no effect on the susceptible strain and had minor antagonistic effects on two other resistant strains. Target site insensitivity, instead of metabolic detoxification mechanisms, might be responsible for amitraz resistance observed in the Santa Luiza strain and possibly in other amitraz resistant B. microplus ticks from Mexico. The Santa Luiza strain also demonstrated high resistance to pyrethroids and moderate resistance to organophosphates. Multiple resistance shown in this strain and other B. microplus strains from Mexico poses a significant challenge to the management of B. microplus resistance to acaricides in Mexico.

Animals↗
PubMed1988

Vaccines to protect Hereford cattle against the cattle tick, Boophilus microplus.

Vaccines made from gut and gut and synganglion tissue dissected from Boophilus microplus gave 87% and 80% protection, respectively, compared with adjuvant-injected controls in cattle against three infestations with 20,000 larval ticks administered over 14 days. A vaccine prepared from synganglion alone did not protect cattle. Ticks collected from vaccinated cattle produced 95% and 91% fewer eggs, respectively, than ticks from control animals. Vaccinated cattle were protected (36%) 7 months after they had been immunized with tick antigens. Antibody responses to the vaccines were detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).

Animals↗
PubMed2003

[Incidence of tick-borne encephalitis virus and Borrelia burgdorferi infections in farmers of the Lublin province].

The objective of the study was to evaluate the incidence of tick-borne encephalitis virus and Borrelia burgdorferi infections in farmers of the Lublin province. The study involved sero-epidemiological examinations of 242 farmers (the study group) and 50 healthy urban blood donors (the control group). In both tick-transmitted diseases, the frequency of sero-positive reactions was significantly higher in farmers than in controls. Serological examinations for the detection of tick-borne encephalitis showed 17.3% of positive results among farmers, and only 6.0% (p < 0.05) in the control group. The presence of specific antibodies IgG against Borrelia burgdorferi was observed in 15.3% of the farmers versus 4.0% (p < 0.05) in controls. In the IgM class, 14.0% of farmers showed positive reactions to B. burgdorferi, while in the control group no sero-positive reactions were noted (p < 0.01). The results of the study indicate that farmers are at increased risk of infection with zoonotic tick-transmitted diseases.

Adult↗
PubMed1989

[The efficacy of alphamethrin-impregnated ear tags against ticks].

The efficacy of 3 kinds of alphamethrin-impregnated ear tags was tested against natural Amblyomma hebraeum, Boophilus decoloratus, Rhipicephalus appendiculatus, and Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi infestations of cattle. One type of ear tag was also tested in combination with a tail band of similar material. Ticks were counted macroscopically on their predilection sites. Counts of B. decoloratus, R. appendiculatus, and R. e. evertsi on all trial animals diminished steadily during the first 7d after application of the devices. Counts on untreated control cattle had returned to their pre-treatment levels by Day 14 in the case of B. decoloratus, and by Day 21 for R. appendiculatus. R. e. evertsi did not regain their pre-treatment numbers during the trial period on the controls, but did so on one of the treated groups. This temporary drop could be interpreted as being the result of pyrethroid contamination from the hands of the investigators at the time of applying the ear tags, but did not interfere with the assessment of the effect of the tags. None of the forms of treatment showed acceptable efficacy against B. decoloratus. Ear tags alone were not very effective against R. e. evertsi, but the numbers of these ticks on the perineum were diminished by the use of tail bands. Two kinds of ear tags showed superior efficacy against R. appendiculatus, and in the case of these, one ear tag appeared to be as effective as two. The effect against A. hebraeum was evidently influenced by the distribution of the impregnated devices. Two types of ear tags were used alone and had no effect.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Immune response in mice and cattle after immunization with a Boophilus microplus DNA vaccine containing bm86 gene.

Plasmid pBMC2 encoding antigen Bm86 from a Colombian strain of cattle tick Boophilus microplus, was used for DNA-mediated immunization of BALB/c mice, employing doses of 10 and 50microg, delivered by intradermic and intramuscular routes. Anti-Bm86 antibody levels were significantly higher compared to control mice treated with PBS. In the evaluation of immunoglobulin isotypes, significant levels of IgG2a and IgG2b were observed in mice immunized with 50microg of pBMC2. Measurement of interleukine (IL) levels (IL-4, IL-5, IL-12(p40)) and interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) in the sera of mice immunized with pBMC2 indicated high levels of IL-4 and IL-5, although there were also significant levels of IFN-gamma. Mice immunized with pBMC2 showed antigen-specific stimulation of splenocytes according to the incorporation of bromodeoxyuridine and IFN-gamma secretion. In all trials, mice injected intramuscularly with 50microg of pBMC2 presented the highest immune response. Moreover, cattle immunized with this DNA vaccine showed antibody production significantly different to the negative control. In conclusion, these results suggest the potential of DNA immunization with pBMC2 to induce humoral and cellular immune responses against B. microplus.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Performance of a prototype baited-trap in attracting and infecting the tick Amblyomma variegatum (Acari: Ixodidae) in field experiments.

Investigations were commenced to study the potential use of the fungi, Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae, and the attraction-aggregation-attachment pheromone (AAAP) for the control of Ambloyomma variegatum as an environmentally friendly technology. The objective of the study was to develop and test a device, which could be used for pheromone and carbon dioxide delivery and infection of ticks with the fungi in an attempt to control the tick populations in the vegetation. Using a pheromone-baited device treated with the fungi mixture, 79% of the ticks released were attracted and exposed to the fungi and of these, 78% died during incubation in the laboratory. In another set of experiments, of the released ticks that were similarly exposed to fungi using the pheromone-baited device and left in the vegetation, 33.8% were recovered compared to recoveries of between 76 and 84% in the controls. These results were significantly different at the 5% level, an indication that the pheromone/fungi mixtures had significant effect in reducing the tick population in the field.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

Application of desiccant and insecticidal soap treatments to control Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae) nymphs and adults in a hyperendemic woodland site.

The desiccant Drione (1% pyrethrin) and Safer's insecticidal soap (0.2% pyrethrin) formulated with and without isopropyl alcohol (ROH) were field tested against nymphal and adult populations of Ixodes scapularis Say in a hyperendemic woodlot in Westchester County, New York. Drione, insecticidal soap, and insecticidal soap with ROH provided equivalent levels of control for nymphs and adults. Compared with untreated plots, nymphal populations were significantly reduced 1 (93.3-100%) and 2 (66.4-85.7%) wk following treatment, and adult populations were significantly reduced 1 wk (53.5-62.9%) following treatment. Factors possibly contributing to the moderate and shorter period of adult control are discussed. Drione and insecticidal soap are effective alternatives to residual insecticides and could be an important component of an integrated tick management program on residential properties in areas where Lyme disease is endemic. Both products lack residual activity and would require repeated applications to maintain sufficient levels of control throughout the tick season.

1-Propanol↗
PubMed1987

Chemical control of the heartwater vectors.

This paper reviews available literature on the efficacy of acaricides against Amblyomma hebraeum and other tick species, and presents information on tests done with registered chemicals in the laboratory. Little published information is available on the efficacy of chemicals specifically against A. hebraeum. A host of formulations are registered for use as acaricides on cattle, sheep, and goats in South Africa and thus, by implication, against this species. Resistance has only been described to arsenic and toxaphene in Southern Africa; the other registered products are generally considered to be effective. In contrast, many efficacy tests of various chemicals in different formulations against other Amblyomma spp. have been described. These publications have mainly emanated from the USA, where bite-wounds of these ticks serve as oviposition sites for screwworm flies. In this paper, Amblyomma maculatum and Amblyomma variegatum are included as potential heartwater vectors. The acaricidal efficacy of a number of compounds, representative of different chemical classes, was tested in South Africa against an arsenic and organochlorine resistant strain of A. hebraeum. The engorged adult female immersion method was used. A disconcerting discovery was that several of these registered products failed to control this tick when used at their recommended concentrations. It is concluded that many chemicals which fail against A. hebraeum on cattle do so because of insufficient persistence. Exposure of this tick to lower levels of existing chemicals, but for longer periods, ought to provide satisfactory control for many years.

Animals↗