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PubMed1993

Motivated augmentation and reduction of the overattribution bias.

Three experiments investigated whether the need to have (or avoid) cognitive closure affects observers' tendency to display attributional bias. Results of each experiment indicate that the overattribution bias was magnified under high need for cognitive closure and attenuated under high need to avoid closure. In Experiments 1 and 3, the relevant motivational state was manipulated situationally, whereas in Experiment 2 an individual-differences measure of the closure motivation was used. These divergent operationalizations yielded convergent results. Furthermore, when in Experiment 3 the task consisted of attributions to the situation, high need for closure augmented, and high need to avoid closure reduced, situational rather than dispositional overattributions. The results imply general motivational boundary conditions for inferential biases across judgmental contents.

Cognition↗

PubMed1997

Self-determination and persistence in a real-life setting: toward a motivational model of high school dropout.

The purpose of this study was to propose and test a motivational model of high school dropout. The model posits that teachers, parents, and the school administration's behaviors towards students influence students' perceptions of competence and autonomy. The less autonomy supportive the social agents' behaviors are, the less positive the students' perceptions of competence and autonomy. In turn, the less positive students' perceptions are, the lower their level of self-determined school motivation are. Finally, low levels of self-determined motivation lead students to develop intentions to drop out of high school, which are later implemented, leading to actual dropout behavior. This model was tested with high school students (N = 4,537) by means of a prospective design. Results from analyses of variance and a structural equation modeling analysis (with LISREL) were found to support the model for all participants and for each gender separately.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1998

Motivations for sex and risky sexual behavior among adolescents and young adults: a functional perspective.

The implications of a functionalist perspective for understanding sexual risk taking are explored. Key motivational dimensions thought to underlie human behavior (viz., approach vs. avoidance, autonomy vs. relatedness) were used to identify 4 broad domains of sexual motivations and to develop a measure of specific motives within each of these domains. Data from both college student and community samples are used to demonstrate the psychometric adequacy of these scales and to show that having sex for different reasons predicts distinctive patterns of sexual risk taking both cross-sectionally and longitudinally: that selection into specific types of sexual relationships partially mediates these effects; and that these needs may be differentially expressed, or even suppressed, depending on relationship context. Results provide strong support for the functionalist perspective on behavior and indicate that an adequate understanding of sexual risk-taking behavior must take into account the various needs and goals that such behavior can serve.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1999

The role of motives in the content and structure of autobiographical memory.

Findings from 4 studies suggest that differentiation and integration are used by individuals high in agency and communion to structure motive-related information in episodic memory. Studies 1 and 2 demonstrated that agentic and communal individuals recalled more emotional experiences related to their motives, and that agentic individuals used more differentiation whereas communal individuals used more integration to structure these memories. Study 3 showed that agentic and communal individuals used more differentiation and integration to structure memories about social separation and connection, respectively. Study 4 demonstrated a similar pattern of recall in an experimentally controlled retrieval task. For a motive-congruent topic, agentic individuals recognized more differentiated information and had fewer differentiation recognition errors, and communal individuals freely recalled more integration.

Autobiographies as Topic↗

PubMed2000

Unfixing the fixed pie: a motivated information-processing approach to integrative negotiation.

Negotiators tend to believe that own and other's outcomes are diametrically opposed. When such fixed-pie perceptions (FPPs) are not revised during negotiation, integrative agreements are unlikely. It was predicted that accuracy motivation helps negotiators to release their FPPs. In 2 experiments, accuracy motivation was manipulated by (not) holding negotiators accountable for the manner in which they negotiated. Experiment 1 showed that accountability reduced FPPs during face-to-face negotiation and produced more integrative agreements. Experiment 2 corroborated these results: Accountable negotiators revised their FPPs even when information exchange was experimentally held constant. Experiment 2 also showed that accountability is effective during the encoding of outcome information. Negotiators appear flexible in their reliance on FPPs. which is consistent with a motivated information-processing model of negotiation.

Adult↗

PubMed2002

Inferences about the morality of an aggressor: the role of perceived motive.

The research investigated perceivers' inferences about the morality of target persons who engaged in aggressive behavior. Across several experiments, inferences about the morality of an aggressor were based more on the perceived motives of the target than on the presence of facilitating situational forces. For example, when a target's aggression was facilitated by personal rewards for aggression (instrumental aggression), perceivers inferred more negative motives and attributed lower morality to the target than when the target's aggression was facilitated by situational provocation (reactive aggression). The results suggest that perceived motives play an important role in dispositional inference and pose a problem for models that focus primarily on perceived causality, assumptions about base rates (consensus), or diagnosticity.

Aggression↗

PubMed1994

Empirical tests of an information-motivation-behavioral skills model of AIDS-preventive behavior with gay men and heterosexual university students.

This article contains empirical tests of the information-motivation-behavioral skills (IMB) model of AIDS-preventive behavior (J.D. Fisher & Fisher, 1992; W.A. Fisher & Fisher, 1993a), which has been designed to understand and predict the practice of AIDS-preventive acts. The IMB model holds that AIDS-preventive behavior is a function of individuals' information about AIDS prevention, motivation to engage in AIDS prevention, and behavioral skills for performing the specific acts involved in prevention. The model further assumes that AIDS-prevention information and motivation generally work through AIDS-prevention behavioral skills to influence the initiation and maintenance of AIDS-preventive behavior. Supportive tests of the model, using structural equation modeling techniques, are reported with populations of gay male affinity group members (n = 91) and heterosexual university students (n = 174).

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome↗

PubMed1996

Changing AIDS risk behavior: effects of an intervention emphasizing AIDS risk reduction information, motivation, and behavioral skills in a college student population.

This research used the Information-Motivation-Behavioral Skills (IMB) model of AIDS risk behavior change (J. D. Fisher & Fisher, 1992a) to reduce AIDS risk behavior in a college student population. College students received an IMB model-based intervention that addressed AIDS risk reduction information, motivation, and behavioral skills deficits that had been empirically identified in this population, or were assigned to a no-treatment control condition. At a 1-month follow-up, results confirmed that the intervention resulted in increases in AIDS risk reduction information, motivation, and behavioral skills, as well as significant increases in condom accessibility, safer sex negotiations, and condom use during sexual intercourse. At a long-term follow-up, the intervention again resulted in significant increases in AIDS preventive behaviors.

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome↗

PubMed1999

Motivations for condom use: do pregnancy prevention goals undermine disease prevention among heterosexual young adults?

Differences in motives for condom use and their implications for understanding frequency of use were investigated in a random, biracial (Black, White) sample of heterosexuals, aged 17 to 25 years (n = 902). Results indicated that sexually active young adults-regardless of race, age, gender, or relationship status-were more likely to use condoms to prevent pregnancy than to prevent disease. Reasons for use mediated the effects of relationship status on condom use per se and moderated the effects of attitudinal and perceptual variables on condom use. Finally, comparisons among condom users motivated by different prevention goals and nonusers (n = 388) revealed that differences among user subgroups were nearly as numerous and, in some cases, more robust than differences between users and nonusers. These findings indicate that condom users comprise distinct subgroups, defined in part by their underlying motives for use, and highlight important conceptual and empirical reasons to distinguish among them.

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome↗

PubMed1986

Cognitive, motivational, social, and environmental influences on children's food choices.

This study tested the applicability of a cognitive-motivational model of health behavior to children's food choices. A sample of 107 elementary schoolchildren provided ratings of 15 foods in terms of possible choice criteria (e.g., how tasty or healthful specific foods were) and social or environmental influences (e.g., whether foods were eaten by friends or were easy to get). Several measures of food consumption were taken, and cognitive-developmental level was assessed. Within-person correlations were calculated between food choices and each choice criterion and social/environmental factor. These "correlational indices" of influences on food choice subsequently were used to identify five distinct subgroups in the sample. Children at the operational level of cognitive development tended to be in one of three groups characterized by health orientation in food choice, taste orientation, or multiple-motive orientation. Dietary quality was poorest in the taste-oriented group. Children at the preoperational level tended to have one of two undifferentiated patterns of values across the correlational indices. Results provide evidence of: the viability of cognitive-motivational models to explain children's food choices, the promise of within-person research methodology, and the potential for enhanced health behavior-change programs by use of population segmentation and tailored interventions.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1990

Motivational-sensorimotor interaction controls aphagia and exaggerated treading after striatopallidal lesions.

This study examined the relationship between sensorimotor and motivational functions of the corpus striatum. In rats, excitotoxic lesions of the corpus striatum (neostriatum and globus pallidus) caused by kainic or quisqualic acid can produce both aversive aphagia and a "choreic" sensorimotor syndrome: an exaggerated treading of the forepaws that is triggered by oral sensory stimulation. Experiment 1 used a recovery-of-function approach to show that (a) aphagia induced by ventroposterior striatopallidal lesions was accompanied by an enhancement of aversion (a specific motivational process) to sweet stimuli, which was expressed in taste reactivity measures of affective evaluation; (b) aphagia and enhanced aversion recovered together; and (c) exaggerated treading did not disappear with aphagia-aversion but narrowed the range of its eliciting trigger to sour and bitter stimuli. Experiment 2 used a partial lesion approach to show that this dissociation of enhanced aversion and exaggerated treading could be reproduced by smaller lesions immediately after striatopallidal damage. Experiment 3 used a conditioned aversion procedure to show that the stimulus for exaggerated treading was aversion (natural or conditioned) and not a simple sensory feature of oral stimulation. Three conclusions were made: (a) Exaggerated treading after a small lesion or after partial recovery from a larger one results from a restructuring of a sensorimotor relations that is nested within a system of aversive reaction, (b) exaggerated treading is elicited only by tastes that elicit natural or conditioned aversion, and (c) more extensive lesions potentiate aversion to tastes that are normally palatable and expand the range of treading elicitors to include those tastes. In other words, affective and sensorimotor systems interact in a hierarchial manner in the production of choreic treading. These results demonstrate a specific hierarchical link between motivational and sensorimotor functions mediated by striatopallidal circuits.

Affect↗

PubMed1996

Separate neural substrates mediate the motivating and discriminative properties of morphine.

A previous study (T. V. Jaeger & D. van der Kooy, 1993) has implicated a visceral and taste region (parabrachial nucleus), but not mesolimbic dopamine terminal fields (nucleus accumbens), as a substrate for opiate discriminative effects. The authors now show that (a) morphine's discriminative effects in the parabrachial nucleus (PBN) require the activation of opiate receptors; (b) in rats trained to discriminate morphine from saline, infusions of morphine into the ventral tegmental area (VTA) do not generalize to the systemic training condition; (c) infusions of morphine into the PBN, but not the VTA, serve as a stimulus for the acquisition of discrimination learning; and (d) morphine applied to the VTA, but not the PBN, is motivating. The data show that the motivating and discriminative effects of morphine are processed separately by the brain. Further, discriminative drug effects are neither necessary nor sufficient for opiate motivational effects.

Animals↗

PubMed1999

Effects of regional striatal lesions on motor, motivational, and executive aspects of progressive-ratio performance in rats.

The striatum is implicated in response selection and performance, the dorsal striatum in sensorimotor control and habit learning, and the ventral striatum in motivation and rewarded behaviors. Ventral striatal lesions produce performance changes on food-reinforced, progressive-ratio (PR) schedules, but the effects of dorsal striatal lesions on this task are not known. In this study, neither medial nor lateral dorsal striatal lesions produced deficits on the main motivational indices of PR performance. In contrast, significant impairments were observed in motoric or "executive" aspects of performance. Motivationally related manipulations of the task (food deprivation and reward magnitude) produced some subtle lesion-specific changes in behavior on these motoric or executive aspects of performance. Findings are discussed in relation to the roles of the dorsal and ventral striatum in reward-related behaviors.

Animals↗

PubMed1984

Food-motivated behavior in rats with cortico-basomedial amygdala damage.

Twelve rats with amygdala damage (CBM) and 20 sham-operated controls were tested in several food-related situations. The CBM rats showed a longer latency to eat than controls in a novel environment due to more pronounced exploration. In the competition for food, CBM rats lost 85% of encounters with controls. Immediately after the contest, when allowed to eat singly, CBM rats displayed a higher persistence of alimentary responses to an emptied cup than did controls, presumably because they experienced more losses in the food competition. Both groups were equally able to overcome obstacles on the way to food, which suggests similar alimentary motivation. The only direct indication of a lowered responsiveness to hunger in CBM rats was 24-hr-fasting-induced hypophagia. The results of this study indicate the involvement of the cortico-basomedial amygdaloid region in the control of relations between alimentary and other motivations. The contribution of eventual changes of food motivation in the postoperative alteration of this balance is discussed.

Amygdala↗

PubMed1996

Antecedents and contexts of generativity motivation at midlife.

A semiprojective measure of generativity motivation--the desire to contribute to the welfare of society--was developed and applied to a longitudinal sample of educated women. In support of previous theory that generativity represents a fusion of agency and communion, generativity at midlife was related to a combination of adolescent scores on achievement, affiliation, and power motivation. The measure was also related to independent indexes of generative wishes and Q-sort generativity. The importance of contextualizing generativity motivation is demonstrated: Generative women with careers found gratification through work, whereas generative women not working in careers experienced gratification through parenting. Generativity was also related to political consciousness. Finally, as young adults, generative women expressed gratitude toward mentors. The authors discuss theoretical implications for E. H. Erikson's (1950) concept of psychosocial generativity.

Achievement↗

PubMed2000

A comparison of models of drinking motives in a university sample.

Previous research has suggested the presence of several alternative factorial models for the assessment of drinking motives. In the present study, confirmatory factor analysis was used to assess the factor structure of the Drinking Motives Questionnaire (M. L. Cooper, 1994) in a college sample. The results indicate that a 4-factor model that includes the dimensions of social rewards, affect enhancement, coping, and conformity motives fits the data significantly better than 2- and 3-factor models. Furthermore, the 4-factor model fits equally well for men and women.

Adaptation, Psychological↗

PubMed1998

Motivational deficits after brain injury: a neuropsychological approach using new assessment techniques.

Deficits of motivation are recognized as a significant clinical problem following brain injury, and a neuropsychological model is postulated linking such deficits with cognitive deficits of a frontal type. However, few, if any, quantitative assessment measures exist; most descriptions in the literature are qualitative, and this has limited the scope and robustness of research into the problem. The authors in the present research have developed new tools for assessing patients' level of motivation in therapy (percent participation index) and their behavioral responsiveness to experimental incentive (the card-arranging reward responsivity objective test). Relationships among poor motivation, reward responsiveness, frontal lobe function, and mood were explored in a sample of 54 patients with nonfocal vascular or traumatic brain injury; the results were consistent with the neuropsychological model. Preliminary reliability and validation data on the new measures are reported.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2003

Interpersonal relatedness, self-definition, and their motivational orientation during adolescence: a theoretical and empirical integration.

The authors examined a theoretical model linking interpersonal relatedness and self-definition (S.J. Blatt, 1974), autonomous and controlled regulation (E. L. Deci & R. M. Ryan, 1985), and negative and positive life events in adolescence (N = 860). They hypothesized that motivational orientation would mediate the effects of interpersonal relatedness and self-definition on life events. Self-criticism, a maladaptive form of self-definition, predicted less positive events, whereas efficacy, an adaptive form of self-definition, predicted more positive events. These effects were fully mediated by the absence and presence, respectively, of autonomous motivation. Controlled motivation, predicted by self-criticism and maladaptive neediness, did not predict negative events. Results illustrate the centrality of protective, pleasure-related processes in adaptive adolescent development.

Adaptation, Psychological↗