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PubMed2001

Performance-driven facial animation: basic research on human judgments of emotional state in facial avatars.

Virtual reality is rapidly evolving into a pragmatically usable technology for mental health (MH) applications. As the underlying enabling technologies continue to evolve and allow us to design more useful and usable structural virtual environments (VEs), the next important challenge will involve populating these environments with virtual representations of humans (avatars). This will be vital to create mental health VEs that leverage the use of avatars for applications that require human-human interaction and communication. As Alessi et al.1 pointed out at the 8th Annual Medicine Meets Virtual Reality Conference (MMVR8), virtual humans have mainly appeared in MH applications to "serve the role of props, rather than humans." More believable avatars inhabiting VEs would open up possibilities for MH applications that address social interaction, communication, instruction, assessment, and rehabilitation issues. They could also serve to enhance realism that might in turn promote the experience of presence in VR. Additionally, it will soon be possible to use computer-generated avatars that serve to provide believable dynamic facial and bodily representations of individuals communicating from a distance in real time. This could support the delivery, in shared virtual environments, of more natural human interaction styles, similar to what is used in real life between people. These techniques could enhance communication and interaction by leveraging our natural sensing and perceiving capabilities and offer the potential to model human-computer-human interaction after human-human interaction. To enhance the authenticity of virtual human representations, advances in the rendering of facial and gestural behaviors that support implicit communication will be needed. In this regard, the current paper presents data from a study that compared human raters' judgments of emotional expression between actual video clips of facial expressions and identical expressions rendered on a three-dimensional avatar using a performance-driven facial animation (PDFA) system developed at the University of Southern California Integrated Media Systems Center. PDFA offers a means for creating high-fidelity visual representations of human faces and bodies. This effort explores the feasibility of sensing and reproducing a range of facial expressions with a PDFA system. In order to test concordance of human ratings of emotional expression between video and avatar facial delivery, we first had facial model subjects observe stimuli that were designed to elicit naturalistic facial expressions. The emotional stimulus induction involved presenting text-based, still image, and video clips to subjects that were previously rated to induce facial expressions for the six universals2 of facial expression (happy, sad, fear, anger, disgust, and surprise), in addition to attentiveness, puzzlement and frustration. Videotapes of these induced facial expressions that best represented prototypic examples of the above emotional states and three-dimensional avatar animations of the same facial expressions were randomly presented to 38 human raters. The raters used open-end, forced choice and seven-point Likert-type scales to rate expression in terms of identification. The forced choice and seven-point ratings provided the most usable data to determine video/animation concordance and these data are presented. To support a clear understanding of this data, a website has been set up that will allow readers to view the video and facial animation clips to illustrate the assets and limitations of these types of facial expression-rendering methods (www. USCAvatars.com/MMVR). This methodological first step in our research program has served to provide valuable human user-centered feedback to support the iterative design and development of facial avatar characteristics for expression of emotional communication.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1982

Frequency judgments by young and elderly adults for relevant stimuli with simultaneously present irrelevant stimuli.

Young and elderly adults judged the frequency of occurrence of right words (relevant information) and wrong words (irrelevant information) that had varying numbers of exposure in a multiple-item recognition learning study list. Elderly adults gave lower frequency values to right words than did young adults but only when each right word was accompanied by more than one wrong word in the study list. This outcome was attributed to an age difference in the distractability created by the presence of irrelevant sources of information. By contrast no age difference was found for the frequency judgments given to wrong words, words that presumably are processed at a superficial level by elderly adults as well as young adults.

Adult↗
PubMed1991

Here's looking at you: the relative effect of age and attractiveness on judgments about memory failure.

Young and elderly females read vignettes describing short-term, long-term, and very long-term memory failures. Each vignette was accompanied by a photograph of an attractive or unattractive young or elderly female target person. Subjects judged each vignette for possible attributions for the target's failure (ability, effort, task difficulty, luck, and attention). They also rated whether the failure was a sign of mental difficulty and whether medical and/or psychological evaluation was indicated. Failures of elderly and unattractive targets were attributed to lack of ability. Failures of young targets were attributed to lack of effort and lack of attention, whereas failures of attractive targets were attributed to task difficulty and lack of attention. Elderly and unattractive targets were judged as having greater mental difficulty and need for evaluation than young and attractive targets. In an a priori comparison, age predominated over attractiveness in memory failure judgments. Subjects, particularly the young, considered very long-term failures more indicative of mental difficulty and need for evaluation than short-term or long-term failures.

Adult↗
PubMed1996

Activation of the prefrontal cortex during judgments of recency: a functional MRI study.

Animal and human lesion studies have consistently shown that damage to the prefrontal lobe disrupts performance on tasks requiring memory for temporal context. In this study, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) was used to explore the brain regions associated with judgements of relative recency in healthy humans. Bilateral dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (Brodmann's area [BA] 9) was more active during a verbal recency judgment task than during a non-mnemonic control task. Activation related to temporal context recognition was also observed in midline supplementary motor area (BA 6) and left precuneus (BA 7). This study provides further evidence that memory for temporal context requires the prefrontal cortex and is the first to demonstrate this association in healthy humans. The current findings also suggest the possibility that recognition of context and recognition of episodic content may involve similar brain systems.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

The role of spectral change detectors in temporal order judgment of tones.

Human listeners can judge the temporal order of acoustic events quite accurately in certain conditions. We hypothesized that this accuracy is realized by coding temporal order as a single neural code of spectral change in the auditory system. To test this hypothesis, we examined whether adaptation to linear frequency glides affects subsequent temporal order judgment of brief tones. We found that the point of subjective simultaneity between two tones shifted depending on the direction of spectral change of the adaptor, as predicted by the hypothesis. The amount of aftereffect was significantly reduced when adaptor and test tones were presented in different frequency regions or to different ears, suggesting that the relevant neural units exist predominantly in a frequency-selective monaural pathway.

Acoustic Stimulation↗
PubMedDate not supplied

The effect of a mock trial on nursing students' ability to make clinically sound legal judgments.

In an attempt to enhance nursing students' abilities to make legally sound clinical judgments, a mock trial experience was developed and evaluated. Using a quasi-experimental design, students' learning was assessed using scenarios derived from actual cases involving nurses. Satisfaction with a traditional learning approach was compared to learning through attendance at a mock trial. A significant difference was found in learning before and after the trial (t = 2.26, P < 0.05), and students preferred the mock trial experience to traditional classroom presentations.

Clinical Competence↗
PubMed1994

Clinical judgment: an integrated model.

Literature on clinical judgment is discussed as a background for proposing an integrated model of diagnostic-therapeutic and ethical reasoning. Information processing and nursing process components related to problem identification and problem solving serve as a framework for the integration of the two domains of clinical reasoning. Discussion focuses on the integration of process components, identification of areas of research, and the use of the model in education and practice.

Clinical Competence↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Use of the human patient simulator to teach clinical judgment skills in a baccalaureate nursing program.

Nurse educators are finding it increasingly more challenging to prepare undergraduate students for the ever-changing and more acute clinical environment. As an answer to this dilemma, the human patient simulator can provide students with the opportunity to enhance knowledge, to facilitate skill acquisition, to decrease anxiety, and to promote clinical judgment in a safe environment. These experiences assist the novice nursing student to progress to the advanced beginner stage of practice. This article describes how faculty used the human patient simulator in creating a case scenario that enhanced critical thinking in senior nursing students.

Anxiety↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Identifying critical thinking behaviors in clinical judgments.

Continuing education and staff development specialists often collaborate with nursing faculty and managers in evaluating the critical thinking behaviors of new staff and nursing students in clinical judgments. The results of this phenomenological study provide insights into specific objective criteria of critical thinking behaviors of domain-specific knowledge, critical reflection, critical thinking competency, intellectual virtues, and action involvement and improvement.

Attitude of Health Personnel↗
PubMedDate not supplied

A program design to promote clinical judgment.

This article describes a unique continuing education program designed to enhance critical thinking, clinical judgment, and communication skills of practicing nurses in an acute care setting. The program design and implementation strategies are described in detail. The authors include specific examples for those who want to develop a similar program to improve the practice of registered nurses in the acute care setting.

Acute Disease↗
PubMed2003

Reliability and validity of judgments of sound quality in elderly hearing aid wearers.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the present study was to evaluate a particular sound-quality rating procedure, referred to here as the Judgments of Sound Quality (JSQ) test, for potential use as an outcome measure with elderly hearing aid wearers. The validity and reliability of the JSQ as an outcome measure were determined for unaided and aided listening conditions. DESIGN: A repeated-measures design was employed with two primary independent variables, each with two values: 1) aided condition (aided versus unaided listening); and 2) trial (test versus retest). Sixteen elderly, hearing-impaired hearing aid users participated in the study. The participants provided ratings on eight dimensions of sound quality (softness, brightness, clarity, fullness, nearness, loudness, spaciousness, and total impression) under four stimulus conditions (speech at 65 dB SPL with a +8 dB signal-to-noise ratio, speech at 65 dB SPL in quiet, music at 90 dB SPL, and music at 75 dB SPL). Test and retest ratings were obtained in both unaided and aided conditions. RESULTS: No significant differences were found between median test and retest scores on the JSQ. The median ratings for each sound-quality dimension were found to have moderate test-retest reliability, with test-retest correlations (r) ranging from 0.20 to 0.73 (median r value = 0.58) for the unaided listening condition, and from 0.23 to 0.85 (median r value = 0.51) for the aided listening condition. Test validity was established through significant differences in JSQ ratings for various stimulus pairs (e.g., speech in quiet versus speech in noise). In addition, significant differences were observed between unaided and aided ratings for the dimensions of clarity, nearness, loudness, and total impression with aided JSQ ratings approaching normative "ideal" values established previously. CONCLUSIONS: The JSQ appears to be a potentially useful measure of hearing aid outcome, especially when using group data to document the benefits of amplification. Additional efforts should be directed at improving the reliability of the JSQ, however, before application to hearing aid wearers on an individual basis.

Aged↗
PubMed2006

Auditory enhancement of visual temporal order judgment.

Although numerous studies have shown that response times can be speeded by the presentation of multisensory stimuli, here we show that such speeding can be seen even when the second sensory channel fails to provide any task-relevant (i.e. redundant) information, and where cueing appears an unlikely explanation. Study participants performed a visual temporal order judgment task in the presence of task uninformative auditory cues, with the latter sound delayed relative to the latter visual cue. Responses were maximally speeded when the auditory stimulus was delayed by a short time (i.e. 100 ms) relative to the second visual target. These results illustrate a unique form of temporal benefit underlying a multisensory interaction, and form the basis for a novel explanation of these perceptual enhancements.

Acoustic Stimulation↗
PubMed2005

Effect of the diurnal rhythm and 24 h of sleep deprivation on dichotic temporal order judgment.

The present study examined the impact of mild (24 h) sleep deprivation and of the circadian rhythm on auditory temporal resolution, measured by dichotic temporal order judgment (TOJ). The rationale for the present study was based on several areas of research. First, the 'sleep-based neuropsychological perspective' hypothesis posits that sleep reduction initially impacts the functions associated with intact prefrontal cortical activity, e.g. language tasks. Secondly, recent studies indicate the importance of the role of auditory temporal resolution in speech comprehension. Thirdly, there is accumulating evidence of the involvement of prefrontal cortical structures in auditory temporal resolution. We hypothesized that mild to moderate sleep deprivation would affect dichotic TOJ negatively. The results showed that: (1) 24 h of sleep deprivation significantly reduced the overall level of accuracy in dichotic TOJ and increased dichotic TOJ threshold from 57.61 ms to 73.93 ms, a reduction in temporal resolution of 28.3%; (2) dichotic TOJ was subject to a small, but significant diurnal rhythm having a nadir in early to mid afternoon. As auditory temporal resolution of speech and non-speech sounds seems to be dependent on intact functioning of the left inferior and left dorso-lateral prefrontal cortex (PFC), these data strengthen the argument that even mild to moderate sleep deprivation can impact negatively on PFC-dependent functions. Furthermore, based on these findings, we suggest that the deficit in auditory temporal resolution in individuals suffering from sleep loss may also affect language comprehension.

Circadian Rhythm↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Children's distributive justice judgments: aversive racism in Euro-American children?

Euro-American 2nd- and 4th-grade children (Ms=7.67 and 9.82 years) heard stories about Black and White characters who produced artwork yielding a windfall reward. Children allocated rewards to characters, justified their allocations, and judged the fairness of patterns representing different justice principles. Older children allocated more money to Black than White productive characters and to White than Black needy characters, consistent with predictions from aversive racism theory. Rationales most often relied on equality principles; older children gave more equity-based justifications for Black than for White characters. Fairness ratings of patterns representing 4 justice principles revealed effects for age and character race. Implications for understanding the developmental course of moral judgments as they apply to racial differences are discussed.

Age Factors↗
PubMed2006

Predictive gaze cues and personality judgments: Should eye trust you?

Although following another person's gaze is essential in fluent social interactions, the reflexive nature of this gaze-cuing effect means that gaze can be used to deceive. In a gaze-cuing procedure, participants were presented with several faces that looked to the left or right. Some faces always looked to the target (predictive-valid), some never looked to the target (predictive-invalid), and others looked toward and away from the target in equal proportions (nonpredictive). The standard gaze-cuing effects appeared to be unaffected by these contingencies. Nevertheless, participants tended to choose the predictive-valid faces as appearing more trustworthy than the predictive-invalid faces. This effect was negatively related to scores on a scale assessing autistic-like traits. Further, we present tentative evidence that the "deceptive" faces were encoded more strongly in memory than the "cooperative" faces. These data demonstrate the important interactions among attention, gaze perception, facial identity recognition, and personality judgments.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Cosmopolitanism and violence: difficulties of judgment.

This paper addresses the difficult relation of cosmopolitan ideas to the existence of war and violence. It explores the ambivalences within the cosmopolitan outlook as it seeks to reconcile its attentiveness to the actuality of violence in the modern age with its normative vision of perpetual peace. I address these ambivalences through a discussion of a) what it is to learn from the catastrophes of the twentieth century; b) the contribution Kant's theory of cosmopolitan law to the solution to contemporary problems of violence; c) the reconstruction of cosmopolitan thinking in the wake of the Holocaust as an attempt to take atrocities seriously; d) the application of cosmopolitan criteria to the justification and authorization of humanitarian military intervention; and e) the attempt on the part of Habermas and Derrida to address the ambivalence involved in reconciling cosmopolitanism and violence in Kosovo and Iraq. While cosmopolitanism is usually understood as a reference to a worldly legal and institutional order, the cosmopolitan outlook is also a mode of understanding the world, an ethic of responsibility and an ongoing exercise of political judgment in the face of violence.

Altruism↗
PubMed1975

The development of moral judgments concerning capital punishment.

Data from a 20-year longitudinal study of the development of moral judgment in American males indicate that the most mature stages evince moral condemnation of the death penalty. The authors conclude that American moral standards are evolving towards a view of execution as unjust punishment. They contend that a theory of punishment based on the highest stage of moral reasoning is more valid than lower-stage justifications for capital punishment, and that it provides a rational basis for asserting the immorality--and unconstitutionality--of capital punishment, irrespective of uncertainties as to the deterrent efficacy of the death penalty.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1981

Modeling the judgment of vowel quality differences.

The hypothesis of this study is that the auditory cues relevant to listeners' judgment of vowel quality are a spectral representation of loudness density versus pitch. A model is described that generates such patterns for steady-state vowels. In addition to the nonlinear transformations underlying the loudness density and pitch scales, it incorporates experimentally established characteristics associated with frequency resolution and masking, such as the critical band concept. This model is combined with a measure of auditory perceptual distance which, operating on pairs of vowels, treats each stimulus representation as a single spectral shape. In order to test the distance metric and the model, experimental data were gathered from listeners' numerical estimates of quality differences between stimulus pairs which compared four-formant and two-formant vowels. The correlation between experimental and theoretical results was 0.89. We interpret this value to indicate that the present definition of auditory cue and auditory distance can be said to account for the experimental behavior of our listeners only in a rather gross fashion. On the other hand, the theory was developed on the basis of rather conservative assumptions about the nature of auditory cues. For instance, the model ignores the possibility of temporal coding and certain nonlinear effects, and it does not pay special attention to spectral peaks. Seen in that light, the agreement between observed and predicted auditory distance is remarkably good.

Auditory Perception↗