Search PubMed⌕ Search

SEARCH · Search PubMed

Results for “Computers”

Search indexed PubMed citations on genomics, clinical trials, systematic reviews and public health. Explore titles, authors and supplied subject terms, then open the PubMed record.

Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.

At least 1,189 records · Page 66Linked to original sources
PubMedDate not supplied

Correlation of computed tomography with second-look laparotomy in ovarian carcinoma.

BACKGROUND: Cancer of the ovary is the second commonest gynaecological malignancy after cancer of the cervix. Surgery followed by cisplatin-based chemotherapy is the standard treatment approach. In patients with persistent disease, second-look laparotomy offers an opportunity to debulk the tumour. This is usually followed by an alternative method of chemotherapy. We compared the findings at surgery (second-look laparotomy) with the preoperative computed axial tomography scan assessments. METHODS: Thirty-seven patients with epithelial ovarian carcinoma were assessed with computed axial tomography scans of the abdomen and pelvis prior to undergoing a second-look laparotomy. RESULTS: Tumour was correctly identified on computed axial tomography scan in 11 patients who had macroscopic evidence of cancer at laparotomy. In 6 patients, both computed axial tomography scan and surgery showed no disease recurrence. In the remaining 20 patients, there was a mismatch between the computed axial tomography scan and the surgical findings. In 16 of the 20 (80%) patients, computed axial tomography scans were negative but tumour was present. When the tumour was less than 1.5 cm in diameter it was missed in 8, and when equal to or greater than 1.5 cm, it was missed in 5 patients. These small tumour deposits were located in the retroperitoneal area, under the dome of the diaphragm, omentum or peritoneum, liver surface, and in the pouch of Douglas. In one case each, infiltration of the urinary bladder, sigmoid colon and rectum was also not detected. In 4 patients, computed axial tomography scans showed tumour when none was present. CONCLUSION: Computed axial tomography scan cannot detect small nodules often present in ovarian cancer, and thus even if a computed axial tomography scan is normal it should not exclude a second-look laparotomy.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Live broadcast of laparoscopic surgery to handheld computers.

BACKGROUND: Thanks to advances in computer power and miniaturization technology, portable electronic devices are now being used to assist physicians with various applications that extend far beyond Web browsing or sending e-mail. Handheld computers are used for electronic medical records, billing, coding, and to enable convenient access to electronic journals for reference purposes. The results of diagnostic investigations, such as laboratory results, study reports, and still radiographic pictures, can also be downloaded into portable devices for later view. Handheld computer technology, combined with wireless protocols and streaming video technology, has the added potential to become a powerful educational tool for medical students and residents. The purpose of this study was to assess the feasibility of transferring multimedia data in real time to a handheld computer via a wireless network and displaying them on the computer screens of clients at remote locations. METHODS: A live laparoscopic splenectomy was transmitted live to eight handheld computers simultaneously through our institution's wireless network. RESULTS: All eight viewers were able to view the procedure and to hear the surgeon's comments throughout the entire duration of the operation. CONCLUSION: Handheld computer technology can play a key role in surgical education by delivering information to surgical residents or students when they are geographically distant from the actual event. Validation of this new technology by conducting clinical research is still needed to determine whether resident physicians or medical students can benefit from the use of handheld computers.

Audiovisual Aids↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Keeping current: computer basics for gastroenterology nurses.

The computer age is here! However, many nurses are not using available computer technology. As the uses of computers increase in work, home, and community settings, nurses need to "keep up with the times." This article provides the gastroenterology nurse with a historical perspective on computer technology, some basic information on computers and computer resources, and encourages the nurse to become computer literature. Gastroenterology nurses need to use computer technology to enhance patient care.

Attitude to Computers↗
PubMed2004

Important computer competencies for the nursing profession.

Nursing requires computer competencies. This study aimed at identifying those competencies required for the nursing profession in Taiwan. The Delphi technique was deployed in this study. In the Delphi questionnaires, computer competencies were sorted into seven domains: concepts of hardware, software, and networks; principles of computer applications; skills of computer usage; program design; limitations of the computer; personal and social issues; attitudes toward the computer. In three Delphi questionnaires, nursing informatics experts gave us their opinions on the importance of each computer competency for the nursing profession. The experts also designated when the competency should be cultivated. This study provides a comprehensive list for nursing professionals to check on their computer competence. The results of this study should also serve as good references for teachers and schools in designing related curriculums.

Adult↗
PubMed1991

Can computer aided teaching packages improve clinical care in patients with acute abdominal pain?

OBJECTIVE: To compare three methods of support for inexperienced staff in their diagnosis and management of patients with acute abdominal pain--namely, with (a) structured data collection forms, (b) real time computer aided decision support, and (c) computer based teaching packages. DESIGN: Prospective assessment of effects of methods of support on groups of doctors in one urban hospital and one rural hospital. SETTING: Accident and emergency department at Whipps Cross Hospital, London, and surgical wards of Airedale General Hospital, West Yorkshire. PATIENTS: Consecutive prospective series of all patients presenting to each hospital in specified time periods with acute abdominal pain; total patients in the various periods were 12,506. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Diagnostic accuracy of participating doctors, admission rates of patients with non-specific abdominal pain, perforation rates in patients with appendicitis, negative laparotomy rates. RESULTS: Use of any one modality resulted in improved diagnostic accuracy and decision making performance. Use of structured forms plus computer feedback resulted in better performance than use of forms alone. Use of structured forms plus a computer teaching package gave results at least as good as those with direct feedback by computer. CONCLUSIONS: The results confirm earlier studies in suggesting that the use of computer aided decision support improves diagnostic and decision making performance when dealing with patients suffering from acute abdominal pain. That use of the computer for teaching gave results at least as good as with its use for direct feedback may be highly relevant for those who are apprehensive about the real time use of diagnostic computers in a clinical setting.

Abdominal Pain↗
PubMed1990

Computer applications in orthopaedics.

With the rapid developments in microprocessors, the widespread availability of computers has brought about broad applications in the field of orthopaedics. The present technology enables large quantities of data to be logically processed in a very short span of time. This has led to the development of information management database systems where relevant medical information may be retrieved very quickly and effectively. The analytical power of the computer has also been utilised in expert systems to assist in clinical-decision making process. Computer graphics have revolutionised the visualisation of physical features of internal and external body parts, providing new and improved modalities of diagnosis. In some centres, surgical planning and rehearsals are already being carried out at the computer terminal with the use of animation and computer graphics. Computer technology has also played an active role in the field of prosthetics and rehabilitation. Intelligent robotic systems and microprocessor with functional neuromuscular stimulation have been applied to benefit, and in some cases restore some motor functions to the physically disabled. With more collaboration between engineers, scientists and the medical community, several prototypes of computer-controlled prostheses and prosthesis designed and manufactured by Computer-Aided Design/Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAD/CAM) technology are available today to assist the amputees in their daily living and ambulatory activities.

Computer Graphics↗
PubMed2001

Education about genetic testing for breast cancer susceptibility: patient preferences for a computer program or genetic counselor.

The purpose of this study was to describe and compare patient preferences for a genetic counselor or an interactive computer program for various components of genetic education and counseling for breast cancer susceptibility. As part of a randomized intervention study on genetics education and counseling for breast cancer risk, 29 women at moderate risk were educated by both a genetic counselor and an interactive computer program. After both educational interventions, participants completed Likert-style and open-ended questionnaires about what they liked most and least about each intervention, and whether they preferred the counselor or computer for a variety of tasks. Participants were largely satisfied with both the computer program and the genetic counselor. A majority preferred the genetic counselor for addressing their concerns, discussing options and alternatives, being sensitive to emotional concerns, helping to make a decision, being a good listener, assuring understanding, helping to make a good choice, helping to understand genes and breast cancer, telling them what they needed to know, being respectful, setting a relaxed tone, and putting them at ease. However, a majority of the women either preferred the computer program or were neutral about allowing patients to learn at their own pace, helping to avoid embarrassment, making good use of time, explaining genes and breast cancer, and treating the patient as an adult. Qualitative analysis of open-ended questions affirmed that patients valued the personal interactions with the counselors, and liked having their specific questions answered. They liked that the computer was self-paced, informative and private, and could be used without causing embarrassment. We concluded that a computer literate, mostly white group of women at moderate risk for inherited susceptibility to breast cancer preferred interacting with a genetic counselor for personal, individualized components of the genetic counseling process, but accepted or preferred a computer program for being self-paced, private, and informative. By incorporating such a computer program into the genetic education process, it is possible that genetic counselors would be able to spend more time performing the personal, individualized components of genetic counseling.

Adult↗
PubMed1986

Numerical T1 computation from NMR intensity ratios.

Two-point measurement of tissue T1 from NMR intensity ratios consists of forming an a priori ratio function describing a T1 dependence of the ratio R(T1) and computing T1 from an observed ratio Q by numerically solving R(T1)-Q = 0 or an equivalent equation. Impact of R(T1) designs on the numerical computation and dependence of relative speeds of three numerical methods on desired computational precisions q and on other factors are examined. All three methods begin with computing a table of R(T1) entries in uniform T1 steps (delta T1). In two iterative methods, a step containing the T1 root is looked up, and the precise T1 location within the step is pinpointed to within a q value by either linear-interpolative (LI) or Newton-Raphson (NR) iteration. The third method simply consists of computing a large table of delta T1 = q for a mere "look-up" with no iterative search. All three methods require a monotonous R(T1) for uniformly effective computation over wide T1 ranges. Speeds of either iterative method for computing T1 images are expected to vary with delta T1 and q with unsharp speed maxima at delta T1 near 20, 6, and 2 ms for q = 10(-1), 10(-2), and 10(-3) ms, respectively. Either iterative method is suitable for both low- and high-precision computations, the LI method being generally faster. The simple look-up is the fastest of the three for T1 image computation to low precisions of q greater than or equal to 1 ms, is likely the slowest for that to q = 0.1 ms, and is impractical for that to q less than or equal to 0.01 ms.

Algorithms↗
PubMed2004

Inter-rater reliability of sleep cyclic alternating pattern (CAP) scoring and validation of a new computer-assisted CAP scoring method.

OBJECTIVE: To assess inter-rater reliability between different scorers, from different qualified sleep research groups, in scoring visually the Cyclic Alternating Pattern (CAP), to evaluate the performances of a new tool for the computer-assisted detection of CAP, and to compare its output with the data from the different scorers. METHODS: CAP was scored in 11 normal sleep recordings by four different raters, coming from three sleep laboratories. CAP was also scored in the same recordings by means of a new computer-assisted method, implemented in the Hypnolab 1.2 (SWS Soft, Italy) software. Data analysis was performed according to the following steps: (a) the inter-rater reliability of CAP parameters between the four different scorers was carried out by means of the Kendall W coefficient of concordance; (b) the analysis of the agreement between the results of the visual and computer-assisted analysis of CAP parameters was also carried out by means of the Kendall W coefficient; (c) a 'consensus' scoring was obtained, for each recording, from the four scorings provided by the different raters, based on the score of the majority of scorers; (d) the degree of agreement between each scorer and the consensus score and between the computer-assisted analysis and the consensus score was quantified by means of the Cohen's k coefficient; (e) the differences between the number of false positive and false negative detections obtained in the visual and in the computer-assisted analysis were also evaluated by means of the non-parametric Wilcoxon test. RESULTS: The inter-rater reliability of CAP parameters quantified by the Kendall W coefficient of concordance between the four different scorers was high for all the parameters considered and showed values above 0.9 for total CAP time, CAP time in sleep stage 2 and percentage of A phases in sequence; also CAP rate showed a high value (0.829). The most important global parameters of CAP, including total CAP rate and CAP time, scored by the computer-assisted analysis showed a significant concordance with those obtained by the raters. The agreement between the computer-assisted analysis and the consensus scoring for the assignment of the CAP A phase subtype was not distinguishable from that expected from a human scorer. However, the computer-assisted analysis provided a number of false positives and false negatives significantly higher than that of the visual scoring of CAP. CONCLUSIONS: CAP scoring shows good inter-rater reliability and might be compared in different laboratories the results of which might also be pooled together; however, caution should always be taken because of the variability which can be expected in the classical sleep staging. The computer-assisted detection of CAP can be used with some supervision and correction in large studies when only general parameters such as CAP rate are considered; more editing is necessary for the correct use of the other results. SIGNIFICANCE: This article describes the first attempt in the literature to evaluate in a detailed way the inter-rater reliability in scoring CAP parameters of normal sleep and the performances of a human-supervised computerized automatic detection system.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

Comparison of conventional and computed radiography: assessment of image quality and reader performance in skeletal extremity trauma.

RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES: Reader performance and image quality wee assessed for standard film, computed film, and computer monitor radiography viewing formats in the evaluation of skeletal extremity trauma. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Three radiologists and three orthopedic surgeons interpreted 27 skeletal radiographs obtained with equivalent technical parameters. Readers evaluated standard film, computed film, and computer monitor formats randomly for fracture and soft-tissue abnormalities. Sessions were videotaped, and eye motion was recorded. RESULTS: No statistically significant differences were found between image formats for true-positive or false-positive findings of trauma indicators. Findings were classified as false-negative based on eye position fixation times. Search errors (lesion not fixated) accounted for 21.7%, 20.6% and 17.1% of false-negative errors with the computer monitor, computed film, and standard film formats, respectively. Combined recognition errors and decision errors were 78.3%, 79.4%, and 82.9%, respectively. Viewing times were longest for the computer monitor images (P < .001). Image quality, contrast, and sharpness were rated highest for computed radiographs (P = .001). Radiologists had a higher true-positive decision rate than orthopedic surgeons (P = .03). CONCLUSION: No statistically significant differences were seen in reader performance among viewing formats. The computed film format received the highest quality rating, and workstation viewing times were longest.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Experimental one-way quantum computing.

Standard quantum computation is based on sequences of unitary quantum logic gates that process qubits. The one-way quantum computer proposed by Raussendorf and Briegel is entirely different. It has changed our understanding of the requirements for quantum computation and more generally how we think about quantum physics. This new model requires qubits to be initialized in a highly entangled cluster state. From this point, the quantum computation proceeds by a sequence of single-qubit measurements with classical feedforward of their outcomes. Because of the essential role of measurement, a one-way quantum computer is irreversible. In the one-way quantum computer, the order and choices of measurements determine the algorithm computed. We have experimentally realized four-qubit cluster states encoded into the polarization state of four photons. We characterize the quantum state fully by implementing experimental four-qubit quantum state tomography. Using this cluster state, we demonstrate the feasibility of one-way quantum computing through a universal set of one- and two-qubit operations. Finally, our implementation of Grover's search algorithm demonstrates that one-way quantum computation is ideally suited for such tasks.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2000

Computation, prediction, and experimental tests of fitness for bacteriophage T7 mutants with permuted genomes.

We created a simulation based on experimental data from bacteriophage T7 that computes the developmental cycle of the wild-type phage and also of mutants that have an altered genome order. We used the simulation to compute the fitness of more than 10(5) mutants. We tested these computations by constructing and experimentally characterizing T7 mutants in which we repositioned gene 1, coding for T7 RNA polymerase. Computed protein synthesis rates for ectopic gene 1 strains were in moderate agreement with observed rates. Computed phage-doubling rates were close to observations for two of four strains, but significantly overestimated those of the other two. Computations indicate that the genome organization of wild-type T7 is nearly optimal for growth: only 2.8% of random genome permutations were computed to grow faster, the highest 31% faster, than wild type. Specific discrepancies between computations and observations suggest that a better understanding of the translation efficiency of individual mRNAs and the functions of qualitatively "nonessential" genes will be needed to improve the T7 simulation. In silico representations of biological systems can serve to assess and advance our understanding of the underlying biology. Iteration between computation, prediction, and observation should increase the rate at which biological hypotheses are formulated and tested.

Bacteriophage T7↗
PubMed1972

Computation of large molecules with the hartree-fock model.

The usual way to compute Hartree-Fock type functions for molecules is by an expansion of the one-electron functions (molecular orbitals) in a linear combination of analytical functions (LCAO-MO-SCF, linear combination of atomic orbitals-Molecular Orbital-Self Consistent field). The expansion coefficients are obtained variationally. This technique requires the computation of several multicenter two-electron integrals (representing the electron-electron interaction) proportional to the fourth power of the basis set size. There are several types of basis sets; the Gaussian type introduced by S. F. Boys is used herein. Since it requires from a minimum of 10 (or 15) Gaussian-type functions to about 25 (or 30) Gaussian functions to describe a second-row atom in a molecule, the fourth power dependency of the basis set has been the de facto bottleneck of quantum chemical computations in the last decade.In this paper, the concept is introduced of a "dynamical" basis set, which allows for drastic computational simplifications while retaining full numerical accuracy. Examples are given that show that computational saving in computer time of more than a factor of one hundred is achieved and that large basis sets (up to the order of several hundred Gaussian functions per molecule) can be used routinely.It is noted that the limitation in the Hartree-Fock energy (correlation energy error) can be easily computed by use of a statistical model introduced by Wigner for solid-state systems in 1934.Thus, large molecules can now be simulated by computational techniques without reverting to semi-empirical parameterization and without requiring enormous computational time and storage.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1999

Better by half: hypertension in the elderly and the 'rule of halves': a primary care audit of the clinical computer record as a springboard to improving care.

BACKGROUND: Despite recent studies highlighting the benefits of treating elderly hypertensives, researchers have shown that the taking on board of these findings has been disappointing in primary care, where the 'rule of halves' still applies. Clinical computers could help performance in this area, yet national and local research suggests that they are under-used. OBJECTIVE: Our aim is to develop a pragmatic intervention which aims to: improve patient care by translating research findings into practice, increase meaningful computer use, establish 'paperless' annual audits and improve 'networking' between practices. METHOD: Following a baseline audit to ascertain accuracy, the computer records of participating practices were tested against the 'rule of halves' for hypertension. Results were presented to each practice (individual practice and aggregate data for all practices). Management guidelines, standardization of computer recording, achievable targets and review dates were agreed. The study was conducted in West London practices using the EMIS computer system in 1996/1997. RESULTS: An 81% (22/27) practice response rate was achieved. Baseline audit was completed for 22 practices. Fifteen practices appear to be using their computer regularly (two-thirds). Using strict definitions, 'the rule of halves' still applies. Using looser definitions, three-quarters of hypertensives are known, two-thirds are treated and just under two-thirds are controlled. This project identified wide inter- and intra-practice variation in: use of the computer, patient follow-up, attainment of target BP, rounding BP readings to target levels and prescribing patterns. CONCLUSION: This focused training intervention has introduced practices to evidence-based proactive care and highlighted an important application for clinical computers. A local network of practices has been established for future projects. For elderly patients registered with a GP, the rule of halves has been improved upon, provided that a figure of 160/90 is taken as an adequate control. Attainment of target BP in treated hypertensives was similar to that reported from large trials. There is enormous scope for improving identification and follow-up of hypertensives using clinical computers and systematic models of care. The wide inter-practice variation in hypertension management requires further study.

Aged↗
PubMed1998

A comparison of manual versus computer-assisted radiographic measurement. Intraobserver measurement variability for Cobb angles.

STUDY DESIGN: A comparison between computer-assisted measurement using digitized radiographs, which has the potential to reduce error, and manual measurement using standard radiographs. OBJECTIVE: To assess measurement variability for the Cobb method on digital radiographs and compare it with that of manual measurements on standard radiographs. BACKGROUND DATA: Studies of the Cobb method have demonstrated multiple sources of error leading to significant intraobserver measurement variability. Estimates for the 95% confidence interval for intraobserver variability range from 2.8 degrees to 10 degrees. METHODS: Twenty-four scoliosis radiographs were measured by six examiners. Two measurement sets were done manually ("manual set"), and two measurement sets were done on digitized images using a computer mouse ("computer set"). RESULTS: For the manual set, the 95% confidence interval for intraobserver variability was 3.3 degrees (range, 2.5-4.5 degrees). For the computer set, the value was 2.6 degrees (range, 2.3-3.3 degrees). This difference in 95% confidence intervals between the manual and computer sets was statistically significant (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study demonstrate that intraobserver variability for manual and computer Cobb angle measurements yield a 95% confidence interval of approximately 3 degrees, with the computer having a slightly lower variability. The computer technique removes sources of intrinsic error, e.g., the variability introduced by using different manual protractors, the inaccuracy of standard protractors, and the use of wide-diameter radiographic markers. Identical digital images can be shared electronically between centers, without having to duplicate and mail films. Multicenter studies in which different examiners will be measuring Cobb angles may consider using the computer as a measuring device to reduce intrinsic measurement errors.

Arthrography↗
PubMed1998

DNA computation: theory, practice, and prospects.

L. M. Adleman launched the field of DNA computing with a demonstration in 1994 that strands of DNA could be used to solve the Hamiltonian path problem for a simple graph. He also identified three broad categories of open questions for the field. First, is DNA capable of universal computation? Second, what kinds of algorithms can DNA implement? Third, can the error rates in the manipulations of the DNA be controlled enough to allow for useful computation? In the two years that have followed, theoretical work has shown that DNA is in fact capable of universal computation. Furthermore, algorithms for solving interesting questions, like breaking the Data Encryption Standard, have been described using currently available technology and methods. Finally, a few algorithms have been proposed to handle some of the apparently crippling error rates in a few of the common processes used to manipulate DNA. It is thus unlikely that DNA computation is doomed to be only a passing curiosity. However, much work remains to be done on the containment and correction of errors. It is far from clear if the problems in the error rates can be solved sufficiently to ever allow for general-purpose computation that will challenge the more popular substrates for computation. Unfortunately, biological demonstrations of the theoretical results have been sadly lacking. To date, only the simplest of computations have been carried out in DNA. To make significant progress, the field will require both the assessment of the practicality of the different manipulations of DNA and the implementation of algorithms for realistic problems. Theoreticians, in collaboration with experimentalists, can contribute to this research program by settling on a small set of practical and efficient models for DNA computation.

Algorithms↗
PubMed2002

Efficacy of body mechanics education on posture while computing in middle school children.

OBJECTIVE: The purposes of this pilot study were to examine the working position of middle school children during their media/technology class, test student's knowledge of healthy computing habits, and evaluate the efficacy of two educational interventions compared to a control group. METHOD: A multi-group pre-test/post-test design was used. 19 students (mean age 11.6) participated in the study during their media/technology class. Students' postures while computing were evaluated on-site. Additionally five students were video recorded while they used the classroom computers so that on-site observations could be compared to video recorded data. All participants were given a written pre-test prior to educational interventions. The 12-minute educational intervention session focused on healthy computing habits, the importance of stretching, and group performance of specific upper extremity stretches. Additional education regarding overall postural health including good body mechanics was provided to one intervention group. RESULTS: The results of this study indicate that a twelve-minute educational intervention significantly improved participants' knowledge of healthy computing habits as measured by written pre-tests and post-tests. Participants who received additional education on overall postural health and body mechanics demonstrated the largest rate of improvement in positioning while computing. No statistical difference between intervention groups was noted on post-test scores, which attempted to measure long-term learning of healthy computing habits. CONCLUSION: Although more research in this area is warranted, it appears that education regarding correct positioning at computer workstations combined with instructing students on the importance of overall healthy posture may foster correct positioning while students use computers at school.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1998

A surface measure for probabilistic structural computations.

Computing three-dimensional structures from sparse experimental constraints requires method for combining heterogeneous sources of information, such as distances, angles, and measures of total volume, shape, and surface. For some types of information, such as distances between atoms, numerous methods are available for computing structures that satisfy the provided constraints. It is more difficult, however, to use information about the degree to which an atom is on the surface or buried as a useful constraint during structure computations. Surface measures have been used as accept/reject criteria for previously computed structures, but this is not an efficient strategy. In this paper, we investigate the efficacy of applying a surface measure in the computation of molecular structure, using a method of probabilistic least square computations which facilitates the introduction of multiple, noisy, heterogeneous data sources. For this purpose, we introduce a simple purely geometrical measure of surface proximity called maximal conic view (MCV). MCV is efficiently computable and differentiable, and is hence well suited to driving a structural optimization method based, in part, on surface data. As an initial validation, we show that MCV correlates well with known measures for total exposed surface area. We use this measure in our experiments to show that information about surface proximity (derived from theory or experiment, for example) can be added to a set of distance measurements to increase significantly the quality of the computed structure. In particular, when 30 to 50 percent of all possible short-range distances are provided, the addition of surface information improves the quality of the computed structure (as measured by RMS fit) by as much as 80 percent. Our results demonstrate that knowledge of which atoms are on the surface and which are buried can be used as a powerful constraint in estimating molecular structure.

Animals↗