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PubMed2003

Drawing the battle lines: tracing the "Science War" in the construction of the chloroform and human health risks debate.

The United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) and the Chlorine Chemistry Council, the Chemical Manufacturers Association, and others have been embroiled in a legal challenge concerning the US EPA's "reversal" regarding the scientific assessment of chloroform's carcinogenicity. This issue arose during the US EPA's November 1998 promulgation of a Maximum Contaminant Level Goal for chloroform in the Stage 1 Final Rules for Disinfectants and Disinfection Byproducts in drinking water. In this paper we adopt a claimsmaking approach: to trace the development and outcome of the chloroform court challenge in the USA, to examine the construction of scientific knowledge claims concerning chloroform risk assessments, and to investigate how different interpretations of scientific uncertainties regarding the evidence are contested when such uncertainties are brought into a regulatory and judicial arena. This "science war" (Chlorine Chemistry Council and others v. US EPA and others) took place in the US Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. The scientific "authority" in the construction of scientific claims in this dispute is based on the International Life Sciences Institute expert panel report on chloroform. Examining these science wars is important because they signal critical shifts in science policy agendas. The regulatory outcome of the chloroform science war in the United States can have profound implications for the construction and acceptance of scientific claims regarding drinking water in other jurisdictions (e.g., Canada). In this challenge, we argue that the actors involved in the dispute constructed "boundaries" around accepted and credible scientific claims.

Carcinogens↗
PubMed2006

Science or practice? UK undergraduate experiences and attitudes to the MPharm degree.

OBJECTIVE: The debate surrounding the science/practice balance in the teaching of undergraduate pharmacy has been played out in the professional literature for years. The objective of this work was to explore the attitudes of pharmacy undergraduates on the practice-science debate. SETTING: The study was undertaken as part of a national study of teaching, learning and assessment methods in United Kingdom (UK) schools of pharmacy. METHOD: Six focus groups were carried out. The sample was 44 volunteer students from nine UK schools of pharmacy, representing all 4 years of the MPharm programme. Groups were tape recorded and transcribed. Analysis of the transcripts was theme based by topic. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Qualitative data on student attitudes and experiences. RESULTS: Most students thought that there was too strong an emphasis placed on the science components of the course in the early part of their studies. Later in the course they realised that the majority of the science was necessary; it just had not been apparent to them at the time. There were strongly held attitudes across all 4 years that it would be beneficial to include more practice-related material at the beginning of their studies. This would be beneficial for three reasons: to make the course more interesting, to aid in the contextualisation of the science component and to assist the students in any early placement or vacational work. CONCLUSION: Internationally, changes to the role of the pharmacist from a traditional supply function to a more clinical role has resulted in differing educational needs for the pharmacist of the future. Pharmacy will remain a degree built on a strong scientific background, but students advise that the contextualisation and sequencing of material within the degree could make a considerable improvement to their learning. Consulting students helps us to understand the teaching, learning and assessment experience better by giving insights into ways of improving the delivery. In the case of the UK, there are legislative changes impending which may provide an opportunity to review the balance of practice-and science in the curriculum.

Attitude↗
PubMed1984

Development of a nursing knowledge base in the life sciences: problems and prospects.

This paper reviews some of the issues concerning the role of the life sciences in nursing education. The unique contribution of the study of these sciences to the theory and practice of nursing is noted, but it is argued that progress in their application to the developing curriculum of nursing is hampered by the traditional adherence to the medical and biomedical emphasis in schools of nursing. It is suggested that the use of a new concept termed bionursing could provide a basis for the development of a distinctive link between the life sciences and their application to the practice of nursing. The author reports part of a study of the role of the life sciences in nursing which suggests that nurse educators are themselves concerned about the difficulty of linking the study of the life sciences directly to nursing theory and practice.

Curriculum↗
PubMed1994

Science is in the eye of the beholder.

The way you view science limits the things that you can do "scientifically". Fortunately "science" is not a single thing but an evolving concept of how to cope with the world, and this flexible attitude towards science can be useful. The rigid view gives strict guidance on how to proceed "scientifically", while the more flexible approach allows for a greater range of response on your part. This paper gives some of the various views of what science is, in the hope that it will liberate you from being too strict without at the same time losing the useful guidance that "science" often provides.

Mathematics↗
PubMed1991

Nursing and the philosophy of science.

Throughout its history, nursing has struggled with definitional issues. Embedded firmly in tradition mothering roles according to McCloskey and Grace (1985), nursing has found it difficult to make transitions into the professional and scientific realms. The professional and scientific status of nursing may not be as gloomy as McCloskey and Grace put it. Leddy and Pepper (1989) for instance claim that nursing has, since the 1960s, dramatically evolved into a scientific discipline. The purpose of this paper is to: 1. redefine science in order to establish the basis of the debate on nursing as a science; 2. outline at least one philosophical position in science and examine how nursing might benefit from it; 3. assess or evaluate, in the light of the above points the possible usefulness of nursing science especially the use of paradigm concepts in nursing; 4. finally question whether nursing wants to work towards paradigm status. In a small way this paper contributes to the debate on the nature of science as applied to nursing. It reflects on the progress being made through nursing models' paradigm concepts. The conclusion suggests that the concept of paradigm as used in nursing is in keeping with Kuhn's and therefore can be adopted as a potentially useful framework.

Humans↗
PubMed1984

Distribution of behavioral science faculty in United States medical schools: 1968-1969 and 1978-1979.

The Association of American Medical Colleges' faculty profiles were analyzed for 117 U.S. medical schools for the years 1968/1969 and 1978/1979. The growth of behavioral science faculty more than matched that of all medical school faculty (i.e. 78 vs 65%) in full-time tenure-track positions over this 10-year period. Most behavioral science medical school faculty are psychologists. Although still small in numbers, faculty from other disciplines such as anthropology and sociology have gained increasing acceptance, and these 117 medical schools now employ at least 20 full-time economists and 13 who have earned degrees in political science. The growth of behavioral science faculty has been primarily in clinical departments, and those who are associated with independent departments of behavioral science remained virtually static (87 vs 88) over this 10 year period.

Behavioral Sciences↗
PubMed1987

The impact and integration of behavioural sciences in the education of health care professionals.

Health, defined as physical, mental and social well-being, should be adequately conceptualized in organic as well as non-organic terms, thus implying a criticism of some training programmes which ought to recognize the dire need to integrate the socio-behavioural sciences--geography, social anthropology, sociology, psychology, political science and economics--in the education of health care professionals. The two components of this education, medicine and health care and the socio-behavioural sciences, should prepare the professional adequately to practice the science of medicine and the art of the profession in varying socio-cultural contexts of co-existing health care systems. This paper argues that it is only those institutions which integrate the socio-behavioural sciences in their programme of health care education that are on the path of progress by keeping scientific pace with our understanding of the structural realities of contemporary societies.

Behavioral Sciences↗
PubMed1994

Social science education as a component of medical training.

The broad view of health espoused by the World Health Organization is now generally accepted by medical educators. Implicit in the new paradigm is a recognition of multiple determinants of health and of shifting divisions of professional responsibilities among providers. As a consequence, the importance of social and behavioural science education as a foundation to medical training is increasingly appreciated. At the same time medical programmes are under pressure to contend with the explosion of knowledge in basic biomedical and life sciences and with technological innovation. Curricula are being submerged in facts, causing medical schools to look for innovative teaching models that feature more flexible approaches to the diverse body of knowledge supporting professional practice. Independent learning methods are being explored and revised teaching programs are being organized around coordinating themes, such as aging, human development and environmental health. Future programmes must be designed to encourage multiprofessional approaches while fostering awareness of the important interplay between health care (both curative and preventive) and social/behavioural science. Within the curriculum students should be offered options that include sociology, child growth and development, gerontology, medical anthropology, psychology, medical geography, health economics, political science and related subthemes. More important than the inclusion of any specific discipline is the creation of an environment in which future physicians may be exposed to critical thinking across a wide range of themes that characterize the social and cultural context for medical practice. Such enquiry is also likely to drive a closer relationship between medical schools and their parent universities within which the social science expertize resides.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Curriculum↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Basic science research related to chiropractic spinal adjusting: the state of the art and recommendations revisited.

OBJECTIVE: The objectives of this white paper are to review and summarize the basic science literature relevant to spinal fixation (subluxation) and spinal adjusting procedures and to make specific recommendations for future research. METHODS: PubMed, CINAHL, ICL, OSTMED, and MANTIS databases were searched by a multidisciplinary team for reports of basic science research (since 1995) related to spinal fixation (subluxation) and spinal adjusting (spinal manipulation). In addition, hand searches of the reference sections of studies judged to be important by the authors were also obtained. Each author used key words they determined to be most important to their field in designing their individual search strategy. Both animal and human studies were included in the literature searches, summaries, and recommendations for future research produced in this project. DISCUSSION: The following topic areas were identified: anatomy, biomechanics, somatic nervous system, animal models, immune system, and human studies related to the autonomic nervous system. A relevant summary of each topic area and specific recommendations for future research in each area were the primary objectives of this project. CONCLUSIONS: The summaries of the literature for the 6 topic sections (anatomy, biomechanics, somatic nervous system, animal models, immune system, and human studies related to the autonomic nervous system) indicated that a significant body of basic science research evaluating chiropractic spinal adjusting has been completed and published since the 1997 basic science white paper. Much more basic science research in these fields needs to be accomplished, and the recommendations at the end of each topic section should help researchers, funding agencies, and other decision makers develop specific research priorities.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

From Nutty Professor to Buddy Love--Personality types in modern science.

People often suggest that scientists should have a specific personality type, usually conscientious and self-critical. But this is a mistake. Science as a social system needs to be conscientious and self-critical, but scientists as people do not necessarily have to conform to that stereotype. Since science works by a process of selection, it makes sense to have a wide range of personalities in science. It takes all types. However, the selection pressures within science have changed over recent decades. In the past, a successful scientist often resembled the white-coated, bespectacled and introverted Nutty Professor in Jerry Lewis's movie of that name. But the modern science superstar is more like the Nutty Professor's alter ego, nightclub singer 'Buddy Love': a sharp-suited, good-looking and charismatic charmer. While Nutty was dull but impartial, Buddy is compelling but self-seeking. Our attitude towards public scientific pronouncements should be adjusted accordingly.

Culture↗
PubMed2000

Setting up a discipline: conflicting agendas of the Cambridge History of Science Committee, 1936-1950.

Traditionally the domain of scientists, the history of science became an independent field of inquiry in the twentieth century and mostly after the Second World War. This process of emancipation was accompanied by a historiographical departure from previous, 'scientistic' practices, a transformation often attributed to influences from sociology, philosophy and history. Similarly, the liberal humanists who controlled the Cambridge History of Science Committee after 1945 emphasized that their contribution lay in the special expertise they, as trained historians, brought to the venture. However, the scientists who had founded the Committee in the 1930s had already advocated a sophisticated contextual approach: innovation in the history of science thus clearly came also from within the ranks of scientists who practiced in the field. Moreover, unlike their scientist predecessors on the Cambridge Committee, the liberal humanists supported a positivistic protocol that has since been criticized for its failure to properly contextualize early modern science. Lastly, while celebrating the rise of modern science as an international achievement, the liberal humanists also emphasized the peculiar Englishness of the phenomenon, In this respect, too, their outlook had much in common with the practices from which they attempted to distance their project.

Curriculum↗
PubMed1998

Nurses' understanding of physical science in nursing practice.

When science educators teach nurses, their primary aim should be to help them to develop understanding of their world of nursing. From a study of registered nurses' conceptions of the physical science underlying their clinical practice, we assert that nurses' understanding of the physical sciences is inadequate in terms of the competencies required of them as nurses. Rather than respond to this contention by altering the content of physical science units in nursing courses, we propose that those who teach nurse students should look more carefully at factors that influence nurses' learning: these factors are images of nursing, shared experience and shared language. We maintain that these factors should not be ignored but can be used to advantage in teaching science to nurses.

Curriculum↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Philosophy of science in doctoral nursing education revisited.

Because every scientific theory and all research methods are tied to some philosophical framework, it is important that scientists within a given discipline be aware of the philosophical orientations that serve as the basis for developing theory and advancing knowledge. Nurse scientists have been challenged recently to examine the discipline's philosophical underpinnings in order to understand the evolutionary process of nursing science. The inclusion of the study of philosophy of science in doctoral nursing curriculum has remained a topic of periodic discourse. Whereas some assert that it promotes the essential process of philosophical reflection necessary for scientific exploration of relevant phenomenon, others contend that nurse scientists' preoccupation with this issue has diverted their attention from the real business of nursing science--that of knowledge development that will lead to legitimization of nursing as a discipline. Philosophy of science provides a useful frame of reference in which to appreciate the unfolding of nursing as a discipline. It should not be viewed as a distraction but rather a critical step in the transformation of the doctoral student into a productive nurse scientist. Doctoral programs remain the most logical place in which to educate future scholars regarding nursing's unique philosophical foundations and their implications for scientific inquiry and continued knowledge development. Creating and maintaining liaisons between nursing and philosophy departments--as well as requiring courses that emphasize the interrelationships among philosophy of science, nursing theory, and nursing research--are just a few of the strategies whereby doctoral programs can actively promote advancement of the discipline.

Curriculum↗
PubMed2002

Legalising science.

The legal view of science has changed through time, moving from a positivist and noncritical position of law towards science to a critical view of science--providing the potential for more objective knowledge, but value-laden as well--and of the role of society. This paper explores some judicial cases that illustrate these attitudes, suggesting that reference to science (particularly to EBM) can be rigorously and equitably made when it serves the cause of transparency and democratisation both in science and in law.

Decision Making↗
PubMed2003

A comparison of sensation-seeking between dental and biological science students.

AIM: The aim of this study was to compare sensation-seeking behaviour amongst dental students and age-, sex-matched students studying for a standard 3-year degree in biological sciences at the Manchester University. METHODS: A total of 268 sensation-seeking questionnaires were distributed to second- and third-year male and female dental and biological science students, studying for a degree at the University of Manchester. Each questionnaire was scored against Zuckerman's sensation-seeking scale. RESULTS: A total of 268 questionnaires were distributed, 175 were returned. The return rate was 65%. The primary findings were: Biological Science students were more sensation-seeking in the dimensions of disinhibition and experience-seeking than dental students (P < 0.05). There was a significant gender bias in sensation-seeking. Males were significantly more sensation-seeking than females in both courses (P < 0.05). Males in both courses had similar sensation-seeking tendencies (NS). Females in the biological sciences course were less inhibited than their dental counterparts (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: There was a clear difference in sensation-seeking within and between groups of dental students and students studying biological sciences.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

How to (or not to) communicate science.

Protagonists for 'the public understanding of science' still sometimes fail to recognize that there is also a need for 'the scientists' understanding of the public' and that for most of science most of the time we are all public. 'Science' is communicated to 'the public' through popular books, museums, TV, the Internet, but far too often the present state of scientific belief is presented uncritically as the onward march of truth as discovered by Euro-American males. This has contributed to a widespread public concern, if not mistrust, in many areas of science, not least genetics and neuroscience. Although researchers often criticize the media for misrepresenting their work, the hype and simplifications often begin with the press releases put out by the researchers, their institutions and the scientific journals themselves. I conclude by looking more optimistically at the ways in which, by bringing natural science into theatre, novels and other art forms, the fragmentation of our culture may be diminished.

Communication↗
PubMed1999

The idea of nursing science.

This paper addresses the question of whether or not nursing can legitimately be considered as a science. It is proposed that an adequate answer to this question requires consideration of recent developments in philosophy of science (as urged by Paley). It is shown that such developments call into question the 'rational image' of science. However, a defence of the legitimacy of the scientific enterprise has been attempted by Laudan, an advocate of the 'historical turn'. Two conditions necessary for the applicability of this 'turn' are identified. It is shown that although they apply relatively unproblematically to science, they do not readily apply to nursing. Hence the conclusion is drawn that claims for the integrity of nursing science stand in need of much further development.

Humans↗
PubMed2001

The influence of liberal political ideology on nursing science.

Previous notions of science as impartial and value-neutral have been refuted by contemporary views of science as influenced by social, political and ideological values. By locating nursing science in the dominant political ideology of liberalism, the author examines how nursing knowledge is influenced by liberal philosophical assumptions. The central tenets of liberal political philosophy - individualism, egalitarianism, freedom, tolerance, neutrality, and a free-market economy - are primarily manifested in relation to: (i) the individualistic focus of our science; (ii) our view of society as essentially egalitarian and equitable; (iii) our preference for politically neutral knowledge development, and (iv) an economy of knowledge development that supports rather than challenges the status quo. I argue that exposing, rather than ignoring, the liberal ideological values inherent in nursing science will render these assumptions open to debate, stimulate ongoing development of critically oriented knowledge, and increase our capacity to influence the social, political and economic determinants of health.

Democracy↗