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PubMedDate not supplied

The effect of CGP 37849 and CGP 39551, competitive NMDA receptor antagonists, in the forced swimming test.

The present study examined the effects of CGP 37849 and CGP 39551, competitive NMDA receptor antagonists, in the forced swimming test in rats and mice. Administered in a single dose or three times both examined compounds reduced the immobility time in rats. Active doses used in that test either did not change the locomotor activity or decreased it. A similar effect in both tests was shown by active (R)-enantiomers CGP 40116 and CGP 43487. Reduction of the immobility time induced by CGP 37849 and CGP 39551 in the forced swimming test in rats was antagonized by haloperidol and (+/-)-sulpiride, but not by SCH 23390 or prazosin. CGP 37849, but not CGP 39551, also reduced the immobility time in the forced swimming test in mice. The results obtained indicate that CGP 37849 and CGP 39551 induce an antidepressant-like effect in the forced swimming test, probably via an indirect dopamine activation resulting from blockade of NMDA receptors.

2-Amino-5-phosphonovalerate↗
PubMed2003

Imaging reveals synaptic targets of a swim-terminating neuron in the leech CNS.

In the leech, the command-like neuron called cell Tr2 is known to stop swimming, but the connections from cell Tr2 to the swim central pattern generator have not been identified. We used fluorescence resonance energy transfer voltage-sensitive dyes to identify three neurons that are synaptic targets of cell Tr2. We then used electrophysiological techniques to show that these connections are monosynaptic, chemical, and excitatory. Two of the novel targets, cell 256 and cell 54, terminate swimming when stimulated. These neurons are likely to mediate swim cessation caused by cell Tr2 activity, and thus play the role of intermediate control cells in the leech CNS.

Animals↗
PubMed1978

[Long-distance swimming competitions for the physically handicapped (author's transl)].

Long-distance swimming competitions for the physically handicapped constitute a new measure in sports for the disabled. Such competitions can only be carried out after intensive training as a result of which predictions can be made for sports for the elderly practised for health reasons. Also, younger disabled people with different severely restricted physical functions, e.g., the paraplegics and the thalidomide disabled, are able to take part in these competitions and possibly even to swim against the non-disabled if they are fitted with the appropriate aids. The effects of endurance training are presented on the basis of many years of experiences with a supra-regional swimming group. The possible consequences for leisure time sports in clubs and organisations are discussed. The results and interim times of the two Cologne swimming festivals are documented in detail and analysed to determine performance pre-requisites. The relationship between general sports and sports for the disabled is reviewed and studied in view of a possible social integration.

Age Factors↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Effects of combined treatment with imipramine and metyrapone in the forced swimming test in rats. Behavioral and pharmacokinetic studies.

In the present study, we examined the effects of imipramine (IMI) and metyrapone (MET) given alone or in combination of IMI and MET in the forced swimming test in rats. We also measured pharmacokinetic parameters: the level of IMI and its metabolite, desipramine (DMI), in the rat plasma and brain (1 h after the forced swimming test). The present studies indicate that MET (50 mg/kg) reduced immobility time. Combined treatment with MET (50 mg/kg) and IMI (5 or 10 mg/kg) produced stronger antidepressant-like effect than either of drugs given alone. Sulpiride (dopamine D2/3 antagonist), or WAY 100635 (5-HT1A antagonist) but not prazosin, (alpha1-adrenergic antagonist), at doses ineffective in the forced swimming test, inhibited an antidepressant-like effect induced by co-administration of IMI with MET. The active behaviors in that test did not reflect an increase in general activity, since combined administration of IMI and MET failed to alter the locomotor activity of rats, measured in the open field test. MET elevated the concentrations of IMI and DMI in plasma, and the total drug concentration (IMI + DMI) was doubled by MET. In the brain, MET enhanced the concentration of IMI, but decreased that of DMI, consequently, the brain IMI/DMI ratio increased twice. The total drug concentration in the brain (IMI + DMI) was not changed significantly by MET treatment. The obtained results suggest that dopamine D2/3 and 5-HT1A receptors may contribute to the mechanism of synergistic action of IMI and MET in the forced swimming test in rats, and that pharmacokinetic interaction should not have a substantial impact on the MET-induced potentiation of IMI effect, observed in vivo. These findings may be of particular importance to pharmacotherapy of drug-resistant depression.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

[Effect of forced swimming on the memory track retention in mice with various behavioral stereotypes].

The effects of forced swimming on retrieval of the passive avoidance during its extinction were found to depend on aggressive and submissive behavior. In mice without generated behavioral stereotypes, swim stress applied before or after training stabilized retention of the memory trace retrieval. The similar improved influence of forced swimming on memory storage is revealed in submissive, but not aggressive mice. The increase of resistance against extinction under the swim stress can be connected to facilitation of emotional processes.

Aggression↗
PubMed2004

Determination of the solids retainment effectiveness of disposable swim diapers.

In light of recent and increasing incidences of pathogenic E. coli outbreaks at public bathing facilities attributable to non-toilet-trained infants and toddlers, many such facilities are restricting water contact for this age group. A number of manufacturers are now offering disposable "swim diapers," which claim to effectively retain fecal material under typical pool play conditions. The study reported here examined the solids retention effectiveness of three major brands of swim diapers as well as of conventional disposable diapers, under simulated water play conditions. Swim diapers of all three brands exhibited an approximately equal fine-solids retention capability of about 98 to 99 percent over 30 minutes of water immersion activity. Conventional disposable diapers invariably fell down or came apart during the experiments, resulting in very limited solids retention. This study indicates that commercially available swim diapers represent a vast improvement in reducing the potential for fecal material release in public pool facilities, but that some release will still generally occur with these products.

Child, Preschool↗
PubMed1992

Possible contributory role of the central histaminergic system in the forced swimming model.

Forced swimming is considered to bring about a depressive or despair state in experimental animals, usually manifested as immobility. Levoprotiline (CAS 76496-68-9), a new antidepressant, clearly reduced the duration of immobility in the forced swimming model in mice. As levoprotiline does not inhibit noradrenaline or serotonin reuptake, this effect did not seem to have been brought about through central monoaminergic systems. Histamine and tele-methylhistamine levels, the main metabolite of histamine in the cerebral cortex, were found to be significantly increased in the forced swimming model. Since the only significant known effect of levoprotiline on the neurotransmitter system is its histamine H1 receptor antagonism, a possible contribution of the central histaminergic system to the forced swimming model is proposed. The action of mepyramine, a histamine H1 receptor antagonist in reducing the duration of immobility seemed to support this proposition. It should be noted that antihistaminergic properties are shared by many antidepressant drugs.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Presence of virulent strains of amphizoic amoebae in swimming pools of the city of Szczecin.

The studies included 10 public indoor swimming pools and 3 public open-air swimming pools located in the city of Szczecin. In 2003, water samples were collected for detection of virulent amphizoic amoebae strains. In all pools, 16 strains of thermophilic Acanthamoeba spp. were isolated, 5 of which proved virulent for mice. No pathogenic strains were detected in the water sampled in the indoor swimming pools, and the virulent strains, AD 16, AD 148, AD 166, AM 17, and AM 148, were found only in the open-air swimming pools. The post-mortem studies of mice that had been inoculated with these strains revealed the amoebae invasions in brain, lungs, liver, kidneys, and spleen.

Acanthamoeba↗
PubMed2005

Self selected speed and maximal lactate steady state speed in swimming.

AIM: The purposes of this study were to ascertain whether physiological and stroking parameters remain stable during a 2-hour exercise performed at self-selected swimming speed (S4) and whether this speed corresponds to those associated with the maximal lactate steady state (SMLSS). METHODS: Ten well-trained competitive swimmers performed a maximal 400-m front crawl test, 4 30-min swimming tests in order to determine S(MLSS) and a 2-hour test swum at their preferred paces to determine self-selected swimming speed (S4), stroke rate (SR4), and stroke length (SL4) defined as the mean values observed between the 5th and the 15th min of this test. The stroking, metabolic and respiratory parameters, and ratings of perceived exertion (CR10) were reported throughout the 2-hour test. RESULTS: S4 and SMLSS were not significantly different and were highly correlated (r=0.891). S4 and SL4 decreased significantly after a steady state of 68 min and 100 min, respectively, whereas SR4 remained constant. Mean VO2, dioxide output, and heart rate values did not evolve significantly between the 10th and 120th minute of the test whereas capillary blood lactate concentration (La) decreased significantly (p<0.05). Moreover, respiratory CR10 did not evolve significantly between the 10th and the 120th minute of the test whereas general CR10 and muscular CR10 increased significantly. CONCLUSIONS: Considering the (La), SL4 and CR10 values variations, muscular parameters and a probably glycogenic depletion seem to be the main limiting factors that prevent maintaining the self selected swimming speed.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Cardiac function after exhaustive open-sea swimming.

AIM: The present study examined the acute effects of exhaustive 25-km open-sea swimming on left ventricular (LV) function and morphology. METHODS: Twenty elite male swimmers (22.3+/-4.1 years) participated in this study. Two-dimensionally guided M-mode echocardiograms, and electrocardiographic, phonocardiographic and carotid pulse tracings were performed simultaneously before and immediately after prolonged exhaustive swimming to evaluate the LV function and morphology, and the cardiac sympathetic outflow. Blood samples were also collected before and after the race to determine the hematocrit and the plasma concentrations of K+, Na+, Ca2+, a-ANP, renin, myoglobulin, CPK-MB, and lactate. RESULTS: Exhaustive swimming was associated with a significant reduction in LV fractional shortening (-13%), ejection fraction (-11%), stroke volume (-25%), and LV internal diastolic diameter (-7%). In contrast, cardiac index was increased by 31%, total peripheral resistance was increased by 7%, and LV circumferential and meridional wall stresses were increased by 101% and 102%, respectively. Significant relationships were found between the increases in total peripheral resistance and LV circumferential wall stress and the decrease in ejection fraction. On the contrast, no significant relationship was found between the increased hematocrit and decreased ejection fraction. Furthermore, the pre-ejection period increased by 11%, the pre-ejection period to LV ejection time ratio increased by 15%, and the electrical to electromechanical systole relationship increased from -8 to 10 ms. Immediately after the race, there were significant increases in hematocrit (9%), and plasma concentrations of a-ANP (211%), renin (161%) and lactate (72%), myoglobulin (421%), and CPK-MB (141%) compared to pre-race values. CONCLUSIONS: In elite athletes, prolonged exhaustive swimming is associated with depressed LV function, as suggested by reduced stroke volume, ejection fraction, and LV fractional shortening. This alteration is mainly due to increased afterload.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Hypergravity susceptibility of ventral root activity during fictive swimming in tadpoles (Xenopus laevis).

1. Fictive swimming is an experimental model to study early motor development. As vestibular activity also affects the development of spinal motor projections, the present study focused on the question whether in Xenopus laevis tadpoles, the rhythmic activity of spinal ventral roots (VR) during fictive swimming revealed age-dependent modifications after hypergravity exposure. In addition, developmental characteristics for various features of fictive swimming between stages 37/38 and 47 were determined. Parameters of interest were duration of fictive swimming episodes, burst duration, burst frequency (i.e., cycle length), and rostrocaudal delay. 2. Ventral root recordings were performed between developmental stage 37/38, which is directly after hatching and stage 47 when the hind limb buds appear. The location of recording electrodes extended from myotome 4 to 17. 3. Hypergravity exposure by 3 g-centrifugation lasted 9 to 11 days. It started when embryos had just terminated gastrulation (stage 11/19-group), when first rhythmical activity in the ventral roots appeared (stage 24/27-group), and immediately after hatching (stage 37/41-group). Ventral root recordings were taken for 8 days after termination of 3 g-exposure. 4. Between stage 37/38 (hatching) and stage 47 (hind limb bud stage) burst duration, cycle length and rostrocaudal delay recorded between the 10th and 14th postotic myotome increased while episode duration decreased significantly. In tadpoles between stage 37 and 43, the rostrocaudal delay in the proximal tail part was as long as in older tadpoles while in caudal tail parts, it was shorter. During this period of development, there was also an age-dependent progression of burst extension in the proximal tail area that could not be observed between the 10th and 14th myotome. 6. After termination of the 3 g-exposure, the mean burst duration of VR activity increased significantly (p < 0.01) when 3 g-exposure started shortly after gastrulation but not when it started thereafter. Other parameters for VR activity such as cycle length, rostrocaudal delay and episode duration were not affected by this level of hypergravity. 7. It is postulated that (i) functional separation of subunits responsible for intersegmental motor coordination starts shortly after hatching of young tadpoles; and that (ii) gravity exerts a trophic influence on the development of the vestibulospinal system during different periods of embryonic development leading to the formation of more rigid neuronal networks earlier in the spinal than in the ocular projections.

Action Potentials↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Mechanism of synergistic action following co-treatment with pramipexole and fluoxetine or sertraline in the forced swimming test in rats.

The aim of the present study was to examine the effect of combined treatment of male Wistar rats with pramipexole and fluoxetine or sertraline in the forced swimming test. The obtained results showed that co-treatment with pramipexole (0.1 mg/kg) and fluoxetine (10 mg/kg) or sertraline (5 mg/kg) (in doses inactive per se) exhibited antidepressant-like activity in the forced swimming test. Sulpiride (a dopamine D(2/3) receptor antagonist) and WAY 100635 (a 5-HT(1A) receptor antagonist), either being ineffective in the forced swimming test, inhibited the antidepressant-like effect induced by co-administration of pramipexole and fluoxetine or sertraline. However, SCH 23390 (a dopamine D(1) receptor antagonist) only partly did not alter the effect of pramipexole given jointly with antidepressant drugs; on the other hand, S 33084 (a dopamine D(3) receptor antagonist) only partly decreased (in a statistically insignificant manner) that effect. Moreover, progesterone and BD 1047 (a sigma(1) receptor antagonist) counteracted the antidepressant-like effect induced by co-administration of pramipexole and sertraline (but not pramipexole and fluoxetine). In that test, active behavior did not reflect the increases in general activity, since combined administration of pramipexole and fluoxetine or sertraline failed to enhance the locomotor activity of rats. None of the tested drugs (SCH 23390, sulpiride, S 33084, WAY 100635, BD 1047 and progesterone) - alone or in combination with pramipexole and fluoxetine or sertraline - changed locomotor activity. The results described in the present paper indicate that co-administration of pramipexole and fluoxetine or sertraline may induce a more pronounced antidepressive activity than does treatment with pramipexole alone, and that in addition to other mechanisms, dopamine D(2/3) and 5-HT(1A) receptors may contribute to the antidepressant-like activity of pramipexole and fluoxetine or sertraline in the forced swimming test in rats. Moreover, sigma(1) receptors may constitute one of the possible mechanisms by which co-administration of pramipexole and sertraline induces antidepressant-like activity in that test.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

[Swimming in summer].

It happens every summer: 'Swimming prohibited because of cyanobacteria'. Blooming of these toxine producing bacteria in warm summer months is a well known risk for swimming human beings. But how big is this risk for swimming dogs? And how big are other risks? In this article these risks are assessed for dogs that occasionally swim in surface water during the summer in the Netherlands. Based on these findings an advice will be given for dog owners to keep these risks for waterborne infections as small as possible.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Antidepressant-like effects of baclofen and LY367385 in the forced swim test in rats.

Baclofen, an agonist of GABA(B) receptors and LY367385, an antagonist of mGluR(1a) receptors, given alone or jointly, reduced the immobility time in the forced swim test but only their separate administration enhanced motility in group of rats without hypoxia. Short-term hypoxia (2% O2, 98% N2, 4 min) did not change the activity of the rats in the forced swim test and it did robustly decrease the motility of these animals. LY367385 reduced the immobility time in the forced swim test but induced locomotion in rats subjected to hypoxia. The obtained results indicated that baclofen and LY367385 given alone or jointly induce an antidepressant-like effect in the forced swim test but only LY367385 possesses such activity in rats that had undergone hypoxia. Both tested ligands are involved in the motility of rats, however, LY367385 influences hypolocomotion hypoxia-induced.

Animals↗
PubMed1991

[Lipolysis and ketosis during swimming in thermal water].

Plasma free fatty acids, blood glucose, beta-hydroxybutyrate and acetoacetate variations were studied in rats during swimming. Rats were forced to swim for 30 min in thermal water (source of Abano Terme) at 35 degrees and in normal water at 25 degrees. During swimming in thermal water plasma free fatty acids were increased, the glycemia remained unaffected, the beta-hydroxybutyrate and acetoacetate decreased. The swim in normal water induced a sharp increase of plasma free fatty acids, a decrease of blood glucose, an increase of blood beta-hydroxybutyrate and a marked decrease of acetoacetate. From these data, some indications of clinical interest are presented and discussed.

3-Hydroxybutyric Acid↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Effect of swimming on asthmatic children].

Thirteen asthmatic children were enrolled in a swimming program during five days. Pulmonary function test before and after swimming training was evaluated. Training did not change pulmonary function values, and asthmatic children improved swimming distance and enhanced swimming ability. No side effects were observed during study. After asthma can questionnaires indicated a high degree of enthusiasm and acceptance of the program by children and parents.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1991

Latent learning in a swimming pool place task by rats: evidence for the use of associative and not cognitive mapping processes.

Using a latent learning paradigm, the experiments examine two hypotheses of how rats solve place navigation tasks. According to associative theory, experience with all relevant cues is required for accurate navigation. According to cognitive mapping theory, animals can generate novel trajectories from knowledge of spatial relations of objects in the environment. Rats that had been placed on a platform, which was submerged in a pool of opaque water and was moved each day, were tested later for their ability to find the platform using only surrounding room cues. One 30-sec exposure to a platform location was effective in improving performance. Improvement was greatest when tests were given within minutes of placement, but facilitation was obtained for as long as 4 hr. Improved performance was obtained as soon as rats acquired the procedural aspects of the task but did not increase with subsequent practice. Improved performance was also obtained when pre-trained rats were tested in a novel environment. Despite the advantage conferred by exposure to the target platform, test swims were not accurate, placement-induced improvement was not as great as that following a single swimming trial, and placement combined with a swim resulted in best performance. The results suggest that rats use associative learning processes rather than cognitive mapping to solve place problems in a swimming pool.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Lumbar hypermobility: where swimming becomes hydrotherapy].

In this paper the authors discuss the clinical problem of lumbar hypermobility. The therapeutical possibilities are resumed briefly. The philosophy of medical training therapy ("Heilgymnastik") is described. More extensive the extra-advantages of hydrotherapy (methodical back-stroke swimming) are searched for in a theoretical deductive way. The authors found that: 1. swimming is a low-impact sport so far as the articulations are concerned, 2. back-stroke is done mainly in a lumbar kyphosis, 3. swimming is also an excellent cardiopulmonary training, 4. when swimming the muscles of the shoulder girdle and pelvic girdle are trained in a nearly isokinetic way (power-endurance), 5. the short transverso-spinal muscles are indirectly trained in their tonic more than phasic stretch reflex (posture function), 6. the muscles of the trunk are trained in a nearly isometric way in the appropriate angles (erect position), 7. the position of the head in the water facilitates the abdominal muscles (tonic neck reflex), 8. the cool temperature of the water generates training-enhancing stress-responses, 9. endurance-training is ideal for the postural function of the lower back muscles (especially the deeper layers near the spine) which are anatomical and physiological suited for this purpose, 10. warming-up and cooling-down procedures prepare the neuromuscular, the cardiovascular and metabolic functions before the workout-session (a cold shower afterwards acts to tonicize the skin and muscles).

Adult↗