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PubMed1999

Quality of adult book reading affects children's emergent literacy.

The authors assessed the relative benefits of 3 styles of adult book reading for preschoolers' emergent literacy. A describer style focused on describing pictures during the reading, a comprehender style focused on story meaning, and a performance-oriented style introduced the book and discussed story meaning on completion. Forty-eight 4-year-olds were randomly assigned to receive 1 of the 3 reading styles over a 6-week period. Pretests and posttests measured children's receptive vocabulary, print, and story comprehension skills. A describer style of reading resulted in the greatest overall benefits for children's vocabulary and print skills, but a performance-oriented style was also beneficial when children's initial skill levels were taken into account. Future book-reading interventions should be tailored to children's initial skill levels.

Adult↗
PubMed1979

Processing determinants of reading speed.

Two groups of university undergraduates differing in reading ability were tested on a number of reaction-time tasks designed to determine the speed of encoding visual information at several different levels. In addition, the subjects were given tests of sensory functions, verbal and quantitative reasoning ability, short-term auditory memory span, and ability to comprehend spoken text. The groups did not differ on the sensory tests. However, the faster reader group had faster reaction times on all of the reaction-time tasks, and the size of the fast-reader advantage increased with the mean reaction time. Faster readers also performed more accurately in verbal and quantitative reasoning, short-term auditory memory, and speech comprehension. Regression analyses suggested that the ability to comprehend spoken material and speed of accessing overlearned memory codes for visually presented letters represented two important independent correlates of reading ability in our sample of subjects. Two variables reflecting these abilities--the percentage of correct answers to a listening comprehension test and the reaction time for correct responses in a letter-matching task--accounted for nearly all of the variance in reading ability tapped by both of our reading tests. In a second experiment, no reaction-time difference was found between fast and average readers in a matching task requiring no long-term memory code access but considerable visual information processing as indexed by overall mean reaction time. The results supported the conclusion that one skill allowing fast readers to capture more information from each reading fixation is faster access to letter codes from print.

Concept Formation↗
PubMed1986

Processing changes across reading encounters.

Five experiments examined changes in the processing of a text across reading encounters. Experiment 1 showed that reading speed increased systematically across encounters, with no loss in the extensiveness of analyses of the printed text, as indicated by the ability to detect nonword errors embedded within that passage. Experiment 2 replicated this improved reading fluency with experience and showed that it occurred even with typescript changes across trials, thus indicating that a primed visual operations explanation cannot account for the effect. The third and fourth experiments then extended the study of the familiarity effect to higher level processing, as indicated by the detection of word errors. Familiarity facilitated the detection of these violations at the syntactic-semantic levels. Finally, Experiment 5 showed that these higher level violations continued to be well detected over a series of reading encounters with the same text. The results indicate that prior experience improves reading speed, with no attenuation of analysis of the printed words or of the passage's message.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1990

Intact text-specific reading skill in amnesia.

Amnesic patients were studied to determine whether the acquisition and retention of item-specific skills can be supported by nondeclarative (implicit) memory. In Experiment 1, subjects read 2 different passages 3 times in succession. Reading speed improved at a similar rate in both amnesic patients and normal subjects and was specific to the text that was read. In Experiment 2, amnesic patients and normal subjects read a passage 3 successive times and then reread the same passage after a 0-s, 10-min, 2-hr, or 1-day delay. In both groups, facilitation persisted for at least 10 min and disappeared within 2 hr. It is suggested that facilitated reading speed depends importantly on both semantic and perceptual information and that such information can be supported by nondeclarative memory.

Aged↗
PubMed1982

Effect of distraction on reading versus listening.

Levy (1977) reported a series of experiments in which a distracting task (counting aloud) interfered more with reading than with listening. The results were interpreted as evidence of the importance of phonological recoding during reading. In a similar experiment we varied the nature of the distracting task, using one task related to speech (counting aloud) and one task not related to speech (manual response to a threshold shock). Both distracting tasks led to similar results, namely, more interference with reading than listening. On the basis of our results and a consideration of related literature, we ascribe the selective interference effect to the relative difficulty of reading over listening rather than to the importance of speech recoding in reading.

Attention↗
PubMed1989

Theoretical analysis of the cognitive processing of lexical and pictorial stimuli: reading, naming, and visual and conceptual comparisons.

This article reviews the research literature on the differences between word reading and picture naming. A theory for the visual and cognitive processing of pictures and words is then introduced. The theory accounts for slower naming of pictures than reading of words. Reading aloud involves a fast, grapheme-to-phoneme transformation process, whereas picture naming involves two additional processes: (a) determining the meaning of the pictorial stimulus and (b) finding a name for the pictorial stimulus. We conducted a reading-naming experiment, and the time to achieve (a) and (b) was determined to be approximately 160 ms. On the basis of data from a second experiment, we demonstrated that there is no significant difference in time to visually compare two pictures or two words when size of the stimuli is equated. There is no difference in time to make the two types of cross-modality conceptual comparisons (picture first, then word, or word first, then picture). The symmetry of the visual and conceptual comparison results supports the hypothesis that the coding of the mind is neither intrinsically linguistic nor imagistic, but rather it is abstract. There is a potent stimulus size effect, equal for both pictorial and lexical stimuli. Small stimuli take longer to be visually processed than do larger stimuli. For optimal processing, stimuli should not only be equated for size, but should subtend a visual angle of at least 3 degrees. The article ends with the presentation of a mathematical theory that jointly accounts for the data from word-reading, picture-naming visual comparison, and conceptual-comparison experiments.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Neighborhood effects in reading aloud: new findings and new challenges for computational models.

A word from a dense neighborhood is often read aloud faster than a word from a sparse neighborhood. This advantage is usually attributed to orthography, but orthographic and phonological neighbors are typically confounded. Two experiments investigated the effect of neighborhood density on reading aloud when phonological density was varied while orthographic density was held constant, and vice versa. A phonological neighborhood effect was observed, but not an orthographic one. These results are inconsistent with the predominant role ascribed to orthographic neighbors in accounts of visual word recognition and reading aloud. Consistent with this interpretation, 6 different computational models of reading aloud failed to simulate this pattern of results. The results of the present experiments thus provide a new understanding of some of the processes underlying reading aloud, and new challenges for computational models.

Attention↗
PubMed2003

Assessing the importance of letter pairs in initial, exterior, and interior positions in reading.

Exterior letter pairs (e.g., d--k in dark) play a major role in single-word recognition, but other research (D. Briihl & A. W. Inhoff, 1995) indicates no such role in reading text. This issue was examined by visually degrading letter pairs in three positions in words (initial, exterior, and interior) in text. Each degradation slowed reading rate compared with an undegraded control. However, whereas degrading initial and interior pairs slowed reading rate to a similar extent, degrading exterior pairs slowed reading rate most of all. Moreover, these effects were obtained when letter identities across pair positions varied naturally and when they were matched. The findings suggest that exterior letter pairs play a preferential role in reading, and candidates for this role are discussed.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1995

Word frequency effects and eye movements during two readings of a text.

The present study examined the influence of word frequency on rereading performance. Subjects read short passages, each twice in succession, while their eye movements were monitored. During first presentations, each passage contained a target word of low or high frequency; during second presentations, the targets were either repeated or replaced by synonyms. In general, during the second readings readers made shorter duration fixations, fewer fixations, and longer saccades. When fixation times on the target words were examined, results showed that fixation durations were shorter for high frequency words during both readings and that the decrease in fixation duration was similar in magnitude for low and high frequency words. This suggests that word frequency and repetition independently influenced reading time. In addition, replacing a target with a synonym did not increase processing time for the replacement word. This suggests that conceptual repetition was sufficient for obtaining repetition effects when reading text.

Eye Movements↗
PubMed2005

Age 13 language and reading outcomes in late-talking toddlers.

Language and reading outcomes at 13 years of age were examined in 28 children identified at 24 to 31 months as late talkers, all of whom came from middle- to upper-class socioeconomic status (SES) families and had normal nonverbal ability and age-adequate receptive language at intake. Late talkers were compared with a group of 25 typically developing children matched at intake on age, SES, and nonverbal ability. As a group, late talkers performed in the average range on all standardized language and reading tasks at age 13. However, they scored significantly lower than SES-matched peers on aggregate measures of vocabulary, grammar, and verbal memory, as well as on reading comprehension. They were similar to comparison peers in reading mechanics and writing aggregates. Intercorrelations between outcome measures were moderately high, suggesting considerable shared variance. Regression analyses indicated that age 2 Language Development Survey vocabulary score was a significant predictor of age 13 vocabulary, grammar, verbal memory, and reading comprehension. Findings suggest that slow language development at age 2-2 1/2 is associated with a weakness in language-related skills into adolescence relative to typically developing peers.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1987

Error analysis and passage dependency of test items from a standardized test of multiple-sentence reading comprehension for aphasic and non-brain-damaged adults.

Aphasic and non-brain-damaged adults were tested with two forms of the Nelson Reading Skills Test (NRST; Hanna. Schell, & Schreiner, 1977). The NRST is a standardized measure of silent reading for students in Grades 3 through 9 and assesses comprehension of information at three levels of inference (literal, translational, and higher level). Subjects' responses to NRST test items were evaluated to determine if their performance differed on literal, translational, and higher level items. Subjects' performance was also evaluated to determine the passage dependency of NRST test items--the extent to which readers had to rely on information in the NRST reading passages to answer test items. Higher level NRST test items (requiring complex inferences) were significantly more difficult for both non-brain-damaged and aphasic adults than literal items (not requiring inferences) or translational items (requiring simple inferences). The passage dependency of NRST test items for aphasic readers was higher than those reported by Nicholas, MacLennan, and Brookshire (1986) for multiple-sentence reading tests designed for aphasic adults. This suggests that the NRST is a more valid measure of the multiple-sentence reading comprehension of aphasic adults than the other tests evaluated by Nicholas et al. (1986).

Aged↗
PubMed1977

Listener judgement of differences in stutterers' nonstuttered speech during chorus- and nonchorus-reading conditions.

The hypothesis that a stutterer's usual manner of speaking changes during chorus reading was tested. Nine stutterers orally read a passage under chorus- and nonchorus-reading conditions. Stutter-free speech samples of similar prose content were obtained from oral readings made between and within both conditions. Observers were asked to identify pairs of samples made under different (chorus/nonchorus) or similar (chorus/chorus or nonchorus/nonchorus) oral reading conditions. The results provided only partial support for the hypothesis. Observers were unable to distinguish confidently the speech sample group that was made under similar conditions from the sample group made under different conditions. However, judges were able to identify correctly samples from four of the nine stutterers that were made under different speaking conditions.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1979

A further evaluation of the speech of stutterers during chorus- and nonchorus-reading conditions.

The claim that stutterers change their customary way of speaking during chorus-reading conditions was assessed in a single subject experimental design on the speech of three stutterers. A number of pairs of speech samples of identical prose were obtained from chorus- and nonchorus-reading conditions for each stutterer. Observers judged whether the pairs were composed of samples drawn from same (chorus/chorus or nonchorus/nonchorus) or different (chorus/nonchorus) oral reading conditions. The findings aligned with those obtained in an earlier group study. They indicated that there may be changes in the speech pattern of some stutterers during chorus-reading conditions, but this change may not occur in the speech pattern of all stutterers who respond to chorus reading conditions.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1982

The relationship between two visual communication systems: reading and lipreading.

To explore the relationship between reading and lipreading and to determine whether readers and lipreaders use similar strategies to comprehend verbal messages, 60 female junior and sophomore high school students--30 good and 30 poor readers--were given a filmed lipreading test, a test to measure eye-voice span, a test of cloze ability, and a test of their ability to comprehend printed material presented one word at a time in the absence of an opportunity to regress or scan ahead. The results of this study indicated that (a) there is a significant relationship between reading and lipreading ability; (b) although good readers may be either good or poor lipreaders, poor readers are more likely to be poor than good lipreaders; (c) there are similarities in the strategies used by readers and lipreaders in their approach to comprehending spoken and written material; (d) word-by-word reading of continuous prose appears to be a salient characteristic of both poor reading and poor lipreading ability; and (c) good readers and lipreaders do not engage in word-by-word reading but rather use a combination of visual and linguistic cues to interpret written and spoken messages.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1990

Subvocalization and reading rate differences between stuttering and nonstuttering children and adults.

The hypothesis tested was that stutterers subvocalize more slowly than nonstutterers and that they need more time for the overt production of the fluent parts of their speech. We also investigated whether rate differences could only be observed for those words on which the stutterers expect to stutter. Fifty-nine school children (27 stutterers and 32 nonstutterers) and 19 adults (18 stutterers and 21 nonstutterers) performed a reading task in which a noun was presented together with its definite article. The presentation times of the reading material were controlled by the subjects. Half of the material had to be read silently, the other half orally. In oral reading, only the data from those trials without any indication of disfluencies were used. Dependent variables were presentation times, speech latency, and speech duration. The stutterers' silent presentation times were significantly longer than those of nonstutterers and this difference was significantly greater for children than for adults. In oral reading all stutterers, regardless of age, had longer presentation times, speech latencies, and article durations than the nonstutterers. Some nouns, however, were uttered significantly more rapidly by stutterers than by nonstutterers. These time differences were found to be independent of the stutterers' expectation to stutter. Our results indicate that a strictly motoric explanation of stuttering is inadequate. The data show that the stutterers and nonstutterers differ with respect to the temporal parameters not only during speech execution, but during speech planning as well.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1993

The relationship between speech-language impairments and reading disabilities.

A group of children with speech-language impairments was identified in kindergarten and given a battery of speech-language tests and measures of phonological awareness and rapid automatized naming. Subjects were followed in first and second grades and administered tests of written word recognition and reading comprehension. The children with speech-language impairments were found to perform less well on reading tests than a nonimpaired comparison group. Subjects' performance on standardized measures of language ability in kindergarten was observed to be closely related to reading outcome, especially reading comprehension. Measures of phonological awareness and rapid automatized naming, on the other hand, were found to be the best predictors of written word recognition. The implications of these findings for the early identification and remediation of reading disabilities are discussed.

Child↗
PubMed2000

Narrative production by children with and without specific language impairment: oral narratives and emergent readings.

The research reported in this paper was based on the premise that oral and written language development are intertwined. Further, the research was motivated by research demonstrating that narrative ability is an important predictor of school success for older children with language impairment. The authors extended the inquiry to preschool children by analyzing oral narratives and "emergent storybook reading" (retelling of a familiar storybook) by two groups of 20 children (half with, half without language impairment) age 2;4 (years;months) to 4;2. Comparative analyses of the two narrative genres using a variety of language and storybook structure parameters revealed that both groups of children used more characteristics of written language in the emergent storybook readings than in the oral narratives, demonstrating that they were sensitive to genre difference. The children with language impairment were less able than children developing typically to produce language features associated with written language. For both groups, middles and ends of stories were marked significantly more often within the oral narratives than the emergent readings. The children with language impairment also had difficulty with other linguistic features: less frequent use of past-tense verbs in both contexts and the use of personal pronouns in the oral narratives. Emergent storybook reading may be a useful addition to language sampling protocols because it can reveal higher order language skills and contribute to understanding the relationship between language impairment and later reading disability.

Child, Preschool↗
PubMed2000

A positron emission tomography study of silent and oral single word reading in stuttering and nonstuttering adults.

Over the last decade positron emission tomography (PET) has been used extensively for the study of language and other cognitive and sensorimotor processes in healthy and diseased individuals. In the present study, [15O]H2O PET scanning was used to investigate the lateralization and functional distribution of cortical and subcortical activity involved in single word reading in stuttering and nonstuttering individuals. Ten right-handed male stuttering adults and matched nonstuttering individuals were instructed to read individually presented single words either silently or out loud. Subtraction of functional brain images obtained during each of the two reading tasks, and during a non-linguistic baseline task, was used to calculate within-group and between-group differences in regional cerebral blood flow by means of statistical parametric mapping. Increased activation in the left anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) was observed during silent reading in the stuttering speakers but not in the nonstuttering group. Because of the hypothesized role of the ACC in selective attention and covert articulatory practice, it is suggested that the observed increased ACC activation in the stuttering individuals reflects the presence of cognitive anticipatory reactions related to stuttering. During the oral reading task, within-group comparisons showed bilateral cortical and subcortical activation in both the stuttering and the nonstuttering speakers. Between-group comparisons showed a proportionally greater left hemisphere activation in the nonstuttering speakers, and a proportionally greater right hemisphere activation in the stuttering individuals. The results of the present study provide qualified support for the hypothesis that stuttering adults show atypical lateralization of language processes.

Adult↗