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Twenty-first century learning for teachers: helping educators bring new skills into the classroom.

The motivation behind every educator's dedication and hard work in the classroom is the knowledge that his or her teaching will result in students' success in life. Educators are committed to implementing twenty-first century skills; they have no question that students need such skills to be equipped for life beyond school. Members of the National Education Association are enthusiastic about the Partnership for 21st Century Skills framework, yet express frustration that many schools do not have adequate resources to make the necessary changes. Teaching these skills poses significant new responsibilities for schools and educators. To make it possible for teachers to build twenty-first century skills into the curriculum, physical and policy infrastructures must exist, professional development and curriculum materials must be offered, and meaningful assessments must be available. With an established understanding of what skills need to be infused into the classroom-problem solving, analysis, and com- munications-and educators' commitment to the new skill set, this chapter explores how to make such a dramatic reform happen. The author discusses existing strategies that will guide educators in infusing twenty-first century skills into traditional content areas such as math, English, geography, and science. Ultimately, public policy regarding educational standards, professional development, assessments, and physical school structures must exist to enable educators to employ twenty-first century skills, leading to student success in contemporary life. Any concern about the cost of bringing this nation's educational system up to par internationally should be offset by the price that not making twenty-first century skills a priority in the classroom will have on future economic well-being.

Achievement↗

Epithelial ovarian carcinoma and European birthplace of grandparents.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to determine whether the risk of ovarian carcinoma was related to latitude or to genetically based patterns of European geographic origin. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We studied the countries of origin of European-born grandparents of 168 newly diagnosed patients in two hospitals in New York City, compared with 159 controls from similar neighborhoods. We measured the risk of this cancer associated with having one or more white, non-Jewish grandparents born in North Europe versus none or in South Europe versus none. We also classified geographic origins in other ways to reflect the two main trends in genetic variations between Europeans mapped by Cavalli-Sforza et al. (The History and Geography of Human Genes, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1994). Unconditional logistic regression was used to control for age, parity, years of use of oral contraception, age at menarche, education, Catholic religion, and area of residence and for numbers of Jewish grandparents, siblings, and first-degree relatives with breast or ovarian cancer. RESULTS: Approximately half of the subjects had least one white, non-Jewish grandparent born in Europe. There was no significant effect of ancestral latitude: among women born in the United States the odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence limits associated with North European ancestry were 0.87 (0.47--1.63) compared with a reference group of women with no such ancestry. The corresponding OR for South Europe was 0.73 (0.39--1.74). Using the genetically based classifications of countries of origin, however, we found significant differences between cases and controls; ancestries from North West Europe and those from countries concentrically near Spain showed lower risks of ovarian carcinoma. CONCLUSIONS: The results support the hypothesis that the previously observed effects of latitude must act through environmental effects or through gene-environment interactions. Other variations in risk related to geographic origins are consistent with known patterns of genetic differences, but require confirmation in larger, population-based studies.

Adult↗

Mammals and rainfall: paleoecology of the middle Miocene at La Venta (Colombia, South America).

A comparison of the species richness and macroniche composition of diet, locomotor and body-size classes among 16 nonvolant mammalian faunas in tropical South America reveals numerous significant positive correlations with rainfall. In particular, significant and strong positive correlations with rainfall are found in 18 attributes, including the number of nonvolant mammal species, number of primate species, number of frugivores, primary consumers, arborealists, and the number of species between 100 g to 10 kg in body weight. Estimates of annual rainfall derived from least-squares and polynomial regressions and principal components analysis yield a modal estimate of between 1500 and 2000 mm annual rainfall for the Monkey Beds assemblage at La Venta. This level of rainfall is associated today with the transition between savanna and forest environments in lowland equatorial South America. Paleontological evidence strongly suggests the presence of forest biotopes at La Venta. Paleontologic and sedimentologic evidence together indicate a dynamic and heterogeneous riparian mosaic associated with the shifting course of meandering rivers. Faunal evidence also suggests that habitat heterogeneity and canopy discontinuity extended into the interfluvial area. Seasonal rainfall was probably only of secondary importance in shaping the structural and spatial configuration of the dominantly forested mosaic habitat at La Venta. The fossil record is not consistent with the presence of extensive primary or undisturbed, continuous-canopy, evergreen tropical rainforest. The reconstructed middle Miocene environment at La Venta differs significantly from modern environments of similar geography on the piedmont east of the Andes at the same latitude. This in turn suggests that the extensive evergreen rainforests of the upper Amazonian piedmont that today receive more than 4000 mm of rainfall may post-date the initiation of Andean uplift.

Animals↗

Composition and ecological distribution of cry proteins and their genotypes of Bacillus thuringiensis isolates from warehouses in China.

The composition and distribution of insecticidal crystal proteins (Cry proteins) and their genotypes of Bacillus thuringiensis isolates from warehouses were evaluated through SDS-PAGE and PCR techniques. The results showed that the electrophoretic patterns of delta-endotoxin crystal preparations were divided into five types. The isolates containing approximately 135 kDa with a 65-kDa protein or only a approximately 135-kDa protein, which amounted to 55.74 and 35.25% of all isolates respectively, were the two major profiles of Cry protein isolated. The distribution of cry genes of B. thuringiensis from warehouses was highly variable. Cry protein genotypes detected in B. thuringiensis isolates included cry1Aa5, cry1Ab9, cry1Ac5, cry1Ba, cry1Ca1, cry1Da1, cry1Ea3, cry2, and cry3 genes, but not cry1Fa2. Among them, cry2, cry1Ac5, and cry1Ab9 genes were the most common in our B. thuringiensis isolates. Most B. thuringiensis isolates contained several cry genes in a total of 18 profiles. Among them, cry1Ac5 with cry1Ea3; cry1Aa5, cry1Ab9, cry1Ac5 with cry1Ea3; and cry1Aa5, cry1Ab9 with cry1Ac5 were the three principal profiles. The distribution of the Cry proteins and cry genes in isolates depended on geography and type of warehouses. Gene profiles may be used as markers for insecticidal activity of B. thuringiensis strains, but they did not directly reflect the toxic level of B. thuringiensis strains. The serotype of B. thuringiensis strains did not directly reflect the specific cry gene profiles in the strains, but certain relationships can be established between the serotype and cry genotype.

Bacillus thuringiensis↗

The variety of human virus evolution.

There have been many wise suggestions of ways that evolution may occur but those ways seem often hard to support with good examples. Viruses have proven to be replete with some of these items. This paper reviews work that shows: (1) very fast rates of evolution; (2) positive Darwinian selection with the selective pressure specifically identified; (3) viral reassortment; (4) grossly unequal rates of evolution depending upon the host of the virus; (5) accurate dating of the cenancestor, the most recent common ancestor; (6) correspondence between the evolutionary tree and the geography of the place of isolation; (7) punctuated molecular evolution; and (8) network evolution.

Animals↗

Molecular phylogeny of north mediterranean freshwater barbs (genus Barbus: cyprinidae) inferred from cytochrome b sequences: biogeographic and systematic implications.

We investigated phylogenetic relationships among north Mediterranean species of the genus Barbus using sequences of the cytochrome b gene. Our results indicate that the species belong to two major clades that are consistent with those previously defined from morphological features. The first clade includes species ranging from France to the Black Sea. In this clade, there is a well-supported monophyletic group of large-sized fluvio-lacustrine barbs; however, the monophyly of the small-sized rheophilic species is not clear. The second clade comprises species found in Spain, Greece, and Asia Minor and probably represents the oldest group present in the north Mediterranean rivers. In general, there is good concordance between geography and phylogenetic relationships. These results are compared to those from previous morphological- and allozyme-based studies and demonstrate widespread discordance and polyphyly in the traditional taxonomy of the genus Barbus. This study is one of the first reporting the phylogenetic and biogeographic relationships of a genus that is widely distributed in European rivers and contains species that are a major component of the European ichthyofauna.

Animals↗

The Coachella valley fringe-toed lizard (Uma inornata): genetic diversity and phylogenetic relationships of an endangered species.

A phylogeny was reconstructed for 23 populations of fringe-toed lizards (genus Uma) from the three most northern species of the genus, including the Mojave fringe-toed lizard U. scoparia, the Colorado Desert fringe-toed lizard U. notata, and the endangered Coachella Valley fringe-toed lizard U. inornata. The outgroup taxa were the zebra-tailed lizard, Callisaurus draconoides; the lesser earless lizard, Holbrookia maculata; and the greater earless lizard, Cophosaurus texanus. Evaluation of 1630 combined nucleotide sequence from the mitochondrial genes ATPase 6 and cytochrome b yielded 10 most parsimonious trees. Reweighting the characters using the rescaled consistency index eliminated eight of these trees. The remaining two trees differ only in the placement of two individuals from the Superstition Mountains which either formed a monophlyetic unit or grouped with one individual from the Anza-Borrego population. The preferred phylogeny, one more consistent with geography, had two primary clades: one consisting of U. scoparia and the other placing U. inornata inside the clade containing U. notata. Uma inornata was most closely related to nearby U. notata notata, as opposed to more distant U. notata rufopunctata.

Adenosine Triphosphatases↗

High genetic divergence and recombination in Arenaviruses from the Americas.

The rodent-borne Arenaviruses are divided into two major antigenic groups: the Old World and New World complexes. Of the 15 known New World arenaviruses, four (Junin, Machupo, Sabia, and Guanarito) have been associated with hemorrhagic fever in humans. It has been difficult to assess the pathogenic or epidemic potential of the remaining viruses and the threat of emerging disease. We obtained full-length small (S) segment sequence data, encoding the nucleoprotein (NP) and glycoprotein precursor (GPC), from all American arenaviruses to predict their evolutionary and functional relationships. Phylogenetic analysis of NP or GPC amino acid sequences from all New World arenaviruses revealed three lineages and that Tamiami and Whitewater Arroyo viruses were probably derived from a single recombinant progenitor. The results imply that arenaviruses have been evolving independently for a very long time, leading to very diverse groupings that do not correlate with geography, rodent host, or human epidemic potential.

Arenavirus↗

The identification of thresholds of acceptability and danger: the chemical presence route.

European Union chemical legislation requires the calculation of local and regional Predicted Environmental Concentrations (PEC) for the assessment of the exposure of new and existing chemicals to aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Current methods use local models for air, water and soil to estimate chemical concentrations close to the source and a generic multimedia 'unit world' approach to estimate regional PECs. These models assume generic environmental scenarios representing typical situations in European countries and do not account for the spatial heterogeneity and temporal variability in ecosystem characteristics, soil properties, river flow rates, chemical emissions, etc. The environmental and ecological complexity can best be represented in a Geographic Information System (GIS). By coupling a GIS with a fate simulation model the concentrations of substances in a specific environment are predicted more realistically. The GREAT-ER project (Geography-referenced Regional Exposure Assessment Tool for European Rivers) was launched to refine regional and local exposure assessments for down-the-drain chemicals by applying real, spatial-referenced datasets instead of generic or average values. A modular approach was developed consisting of a hydrological model and a waste-flow, river quality and fate model which are linked to a regional GIS-database. For the calibration and validation in two European study areas representative detergent chemicals (LAS, boron) are used. In a parallel study, high-volume intermediates discharged into the river Rhine are simulated.

Alkanesulfonates↗

Culture-bound syndromes and international disease classifications.

An important endeavor in the world psychiatric community is the development of an international classification of psychiatric disorders that will be more culture-free than either the current DSM-III or ICD-9. This classification should be clinically useful and relevant to psychiatric experience in all countries of the world. A major problem in this endeavor is the existence of the so-called culture-bound syndromes syndromes (CBS's) which reflect cultural influences on disease patterns and render them difficult to place in disease classifications which have their origins in Western cultures. Literally dozens of disorders have been labelled CBS's around the world, and considerable looseness has developed in the use of the CBS rubric. Recently it has been proposed that all illnesses (both physical and psychiatric) are in fact culture bound. In reaction to this drift towards meaninglessness, a new definition for CBS's is proposed - a collection of signs and symptoms (excluding notions of cause) which is restricted to a limited number of cultures primarily by reason of certain of their psychosocial features. In this definition, notions of etiology and illness labels are excluded because these are highly variable and change over time. On the other hand, collections of signs and symptoms (i.e., syndromes), insofar as they are reasonably complete descriptions of nature, remain constant over time and are verifiable by all investigators. Using two CBS's from the Pacific basin area - taijin-kyofu-sho and latah - as examples, the following conclusions are drawn: CBS status should not be assigned on the basis of differential distribution of illnesses because of accidents of geography or on the basis of local labels or notions of cause; epidemiological features of diseases such as global prevalence or age/sex differentials of those affected should not be used as basis of CBS status; the meaning of illness, both for individuals and for cultures, is an important area of study in its own right but such meanings should not be confused with syndrome descriptions or used as criteria for an international disease classification; a truly international classification of diseases is close to realization through relatively minor alterations in the Axis I designations and descriptions of DSM-III. Few entirely new categories would be required.

Adult↗

Neuroradiology of pediatric posterior fossa medulloblastoma.

Medulloblastoma of the cerebellum is a common intracranial neoplasm in children and presents many faces in medical imaging. Characteristic or classic features, such as increased attenuation on unenhanced CT, midline location and well defined margins, are commonly present in childhood cases of posterior foassa medulloblastoma, although atypical imaging features are being noted more frequently with the increased dependence on MR as the diagnostic modality of choice. Carefully performed CT and MR both initially provide suitable geography and characteristics, but MR is superior in the detection of pre- or post-operative neoplastic spread elsewhere in the subarachnoid space. Accurate establishment of disease extent is essential in planning both surgical resection and adjuvant therapy.

Adult↗

Acute rheumatic fever in Saudi Arabia: mild pattern of initial attack.

Fifty-one children with the initial attack of acute rheumatic fever (ARF) were studied prospectively to verify the sociodemographic and clinical profile and to compare results with those from other countries. Most children belonged to large families who lived in an urban setting with ready access to medical care. Unlike reports from many developing countries, the clinical manifestations in this study paralleled data from the West and included arthritis in 76% of the cases, carditis in 43%, and chorea in 8%. Among the 22 cases with carditis, 18 had mitral regurgitation, three developed combined mitral and aortic regurgitation, and one had aortic regurgitation. This study demonstrates the mild nature of ARF in Saudi Arabia and supports the concept that climate and geography appear to bear little relationship to the incidence and severity of ARF.

Adolescent↗

The use of karyotyping in the systematics of yeasts.

The use of electrophoretic karyotyping in systematics of yeasts is discussed. New data are provided on the karyotypes of the medically important fungi Hortaea werneckii, Filobasidiella (= Cryptococcus) neoformans, and Malassezia species. Hortaea werneckii has twelve to eighteen bands of chromosomal DNA, ranging in size between 500 and 2300 kb. The karyotypes of Filobasidiella neoformans consist of seven to fourteen bands of chromosomal DNA. The varieties neoformans and bacillispora cannot be separated by their karyotypes, and no obvious correlation was found with serotypes, geography or habitat. All strains of Malassezia pachydermatis studied have similar karyotypes consisting of five bands, whereas in M. furfur, four different karyotypes are prevalent. However, each of these karyotypes is stable.

Chromosomes, Fungal↗

Mental health and North American Indian/Native communities: cultural transactions, education, and regulation.

Critical issues in the delivery of mental health services to North American Indians/Natives residing in rural areas are discussed by describing Indian populations/communities; briefly summarizing available literature concerning the nature of mental health problems within Indian communities; examining Indian belief systems relevant to participation in mental health service delivery processes; exploring community expectations for structuring participatory interactions which may inhibit utilization of mental health services; and describing transactions between Indian consumers and non-Indian professionals which have become typical over time. The rural context was examined as it interacts with individual and community characteristics to affect Indian mental health. Relations between geography and culture, important in understanding the mental health problems of Indian people, are discussed in regard to expanding community healing resources through empowerment, and viewing "education as transformation" as a key concept in enhancing community healing processes.

Acculturation↗

Computed tomography and ultrasound of renal and perirenal diseases in infants and children. Relationship to excretory urography in renal cystic disease, trauma and neoplasm.

Forty-seven infants and children had excretory urography, ultrasound, and computed tomography with the renal and perirenal areas as the primary regions of interest. Ultrasound is an excellent screening procedure and is often diagnostic especially in renal cystic disease. Computed tomography best demonstrated the extent of renal injury and best delineated the geography, character, and extent of solid renal and perirenal neoplasms (screened by ultrasound). Excretory urography in these patients was at times incorrect, often underestimated the extent of the pathologic process, and is often unnecessary.

Adolescent↗

Monitoring international migration flows in Europe. Towards a statistical data base combining data from different sources.

"The paper reviews techniques developed in demography, geography and statistics that are useful for bridging the gap between available data on international migration flows and the information required for policy making and research. The basic idea of the paper is as follows: to establish a coherent and consistent data base that contains sufficiently detailed, up-to-date and accurate information, data from several sources should be combined.... The issues may be tackled more easily if the statistics that are being compiled are viewed as different outcomes or manifestations of underlying stochastic processes governing migration. The link between the processes and their outcomes is described by models, the parameters of which must be estimated from the available data.... The paper discusses the experience of the U.S. Bureau of the Census in combining migration data from several sources. It also summarizes the many efforts in Europe to establish a coherent and consistent data base on international migration." (SUMMARY IN FRE)

Americas↗

A geographic approach to senile cataracts: possible links with milk consumption, lactase activity, and galactose metabolism.

Examined in this article is presently available evidence for the hypothesis that some types of senile cataracts may be brought on by decades-long consumption of milk and milk products. The author approaches the question from a background of research in the geography and history of dairying as these relate to present-day differences among the world's peoples in prevalence of primary adult lactose malabsorption, which is based on a deficiency of the enzyme lactase in adulthood. Among peoples who have consumed milk in lactose-rich forms over a long historical period, there seems to have been a mutation for persistence of high lactase activity throughout life (PHLA), which distinguishes them from human populations of nonmilking tradition and from most land mammals. PHLA permits greater intestinal hydrolysis of lactose and absorption of galactose by adults. The mutation for PHLA, however, was not accompanied by a second one raising galactokinase activity to high levels through life. The result may be that adults who consume large quantities of milk, who have high lactase activity, lactose hydrolysis, and galactose absorption, suffer repeated small galactose challenges, accumulation of galactitol in the lens, and a greater likelihood of developing senile cataracts.

Adult↗

Primary medical care for elderly patients. Part II: Results of a survey of office based clinicians.

Evidence of the degree of fit between the special needs of the elderly and the service mix and payment level of ambulatory services offered under the Medicare program is presented in this second part of a two-part study of geriatric office care. Results from interviews with a focus group of 60 practicing clinicians, incorporating diversity of geography and practice setting, are described and compared with the view of geriatricians. Between 30 and 57% of the clinicians are aware of negative effects of Medicare's benefit structure on specific aspects of their practice.

Health Services Needs and Demand↗