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PubMedDate not supplied

Promoting widespread, durable service quality via interlocking contingencies.

Technologies for promoting quality of organizational services to the developmentally disabled have been evolving over the past several decades. Feedback reinforcement and, often, goal-setting, powerful change tools, generally are incorporated within behavioral interventions. Despite their promise, wide-scale application of these strategies often is impeded by natural and informal organizational contingencies. In an attempt to combat such impediments, a structure of interlocking contingencies was designed to train and support managers' provision of effective feedback to their subordinates, peers, and superiors. The system included formal scheduling of feedback, reinforcement and goal setting in a way that attempted to (a) minimize financial costs, time and effort; (b) empower participants by involving them in designing the specifics of the system; and (c) promote momentum by encouraging dense schedules of feedback. Within a period of less than 6 months, supervisors, managers, and professional specialists conducted brief audits and delivered nearly 9,000 written feedback reports to workers serving 129 clients, with the result that staff-client interactions and client engagement levels increased substantially. Future research should replicate these methods under more rigorous experimental conditions and formally assess some of the system's spillover into realms such as gains in clients' skill levels, and staff and public acceptance.

Adult↗
PubMed1978

Communicative performance of mentally retarded adults in four conversational settings.

A sociolinguistic analysis of the communicative performances and social interactions of four mentally retarded adults was conducted. Role relationships were examined along dimensions of dominance-submission and control in various conversational settings. Audiotape recordings were made of each adult's conversation while engaged in discourse with his speech-language pathologist, peers, parents, and with a normal young child. Relational communication coding schemes involving the analysis of questions and subsequent responses were applied to the data. Results indicated that the retarded adults, though not always able to hold a dominant position in a conversation, were capable of expressing the same types of control as normal adults. The types of control expressed by each subject varied as a function of the conversational setting. Furthermore, differences existed in the types and frequencies of control expressed across subjects. These findings suggest that a sociolinguistic approach provides important information regarding the mentally retarded adult's communicative performance.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Micromanagement--a costly management style.

Micromanagement can be advantageous in certain short-term situations, such as while training new employees, increasing productivity of underperforming employees, controlling high-risk issues, and when there can be no question of who is in charge. However, the costs associated with long-term micromanagement can be exorbitant. Symptoms such as low employee morale, high staff turnover, reduction of productivity and patient dissatisfaction can be associated with micromanagement. The negative impacts are so intense that it is labeled among the top three reasons employees resign. Ultimately, micromanagement leads to decreased growth potential in a department. Managers who put too much emphasis on daily operational details can miss the broader picture and fail to plan for departmental expansion. Eventually, many micromanagers find themselves at considerable risk of burnout. Changing behavior associated with micromanagement can be a lengthy and difficult process. As with most problems, the first step is to realize that there is behavior that needs to be changed and to understand how it negatively impacts the department. Conducting a self-assessment of one's leadership style can be advantageous in this process. The true task is to find a balance between effectively performing daily obligations and strategically planning for the future. This task typically involves proper delegation of duties, and that in itself is a difficult challenge. Proper delegation of tasks may be the primary key to combating micromanaging behavior, however, some other suggestions include: 1. Develop a vision of what the department will look like in the future. 2. Hire people with the right skills for the job. 3. Develop a policy and procedures manual. 4. Develop solid lines of communication between managers and subordinates. 5. Expect some employee errors. Mistakes are an important process in the learning experience and should be viewed as a training expense. Employees who are allowed to be self-directed will be motivated to be more productive. Staffing issues such as low morale and high turnover will decrease; patient satisfaction will increase simultaneously.

Administrative Personnel↗
PubMed2005

Subordinate male mice show long-lasting differences in spatial learning that persist when housed alone.

In the wild, house mice live in social groups, whereas in the laboratory male mice are often singly housed. Environmental enrichment such as that provided by social housing has been argued to improve the cognitive performance of laboratory animals in experimental tests. The aim of the present study was to test the cost of aggressive social interactions on learning in male CD-1 mice. We found that subordinate mice from more aggressive dyads showed spatial learning impairment, measured as alternation on a T-maze. Learning impairments in subordinates have hitherto been presumed attributable to the animals' exposure to, and relative standing within, the social group. By contrast, the impairment we observed could not have been the result of recent social defeat because it persisted weeks later when the mice were housed alone. Elevated urinary corticosterone predicted later subordination, though paradoxically these abnormally high levels were reduced by pair housing.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed2003

Why social dominance theory has been falsified.

Schmitt, Branscombe and Kappen (2003) and Wilson and Lui (2003) present a persuasive series of studies which raise major problems for the conceptualization of social dominance orientation in social dominance theory. Building on these and other data in the literature, this commentary summarizes six fundamental criticisms which can be made of the theory. We conclude that social dominance theory is flawed by conceptual inconsistencies and has been disconfirmed empirically in relation to its key hypothesis of behavioural asymmetry. The reaction of subordinate groups to the social hierarchy is better explained by social identity theory.

Biology↗
PubMed1976

Effects of Sevin on the reproductive biology of the Coturnix.

Adult Coturnix quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) were subjected to three levels of carbaryl pesticide treatment (Sevin-20 p.p.m., 40 p.p.m., and 400 p.p.m) and monitored to observe any modifications in either their reproductive biology or behavior. There was an increase in the amount of pesticide excreted with increasing treatment levels during the first 48 hours following intubation, after which pesticide levels in the fecal material for all groups approached zero. Addditionally, significant amounts of the pesticide were detected in the egg yolks after pesticide ingestion (treatment levels, 20, 40, and 400 p.p.m. resulted in pesticide residues of 1.58, 2.03, and 3.15 p.p.m., respectively). Egg production was significantly reduced (p less than or equal to 0.05), although egg viability was not affected by the pesticide stress. Agonistic behavior decreased in males while it increased in the females following pesticide ingestion.

Aggression↗
PubMed1999

Understanding the Dynamics of Leadership: The Role of Follower Self-Concepts in the Leader/Follower Relationship.

In this paper we integrate recent theory and research on the self-concept with leadership theory. We conceptualize the self as being defined at three levels: the individual, interpersonal, and group levels. The effects of the self on information processing and behavior are mediated by the working self-concept, which is composed of self-views, possible selves, and goals (standards). Leaders are seen as producing short-run changes by influencing the working self-concept and more enduring changes through the development of chronic schema. Subordinates are also seen as influencing leaders' self-schema, both individually and collectively. Both practical and theoretical implications of this perspective are discussed. Copyright 1999 Academic Press.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2006

Placing perceptions of politics in the context of the feedback environment, employee attitudes, and job performance.

The authors proposed a model suggesting that organizational environments supporting high levels of informal supervisor and coworker feedback are associated with lower employee perceptions of organizational politics. Furthermore, these lowered perceptions of politics were proposed to result in higher employee morale (as reflected in job satisfaction and affective commitment) and, through morale, to higher levels of task performance and organizational citizenship. The proposed mediational model was supported with empirical results from 150 subordinate-supervisor dyads sampled across a variety of organizations. Higher quality feedback environments were associated with lower perceptions of organizational politics, and morale mediated the relationships between organizational politics and various aspects of work performance. These findings suggest that when employees have greater access to information regarding behaviors that are acceptable and desired at work, perceptions of politics are reduced and work outcomes are enhanced.

Adult↗
PubMed1996

Seasonality in squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus): social facilitation by females.

The extent to which social living arrangements influenced seasonal changes in physiology and behavior was examined in adult squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus). Data were collected over 20 months (encompassing two breeding seasons) from animals that were housed in three mixed-sex social configurations that varied in the number of heterosexual and isosexual social partners. For both sexes, the presence of multiple females was found to facilitate reproduction. Females housed with other females were more likely to exhibit seasonal ovarian cyclicity and tended to have higher conception rates. Social facilitation of reproduction was particularly prominent for subordinate females. The presence of same-sex companions also resulted in reduced adrenocortical output in females during the first nonbreeding season. In males, the availability of multiple females increased plasma testosterone levels, except in the presence of more dominant males. Seasonal increases in male weight coincided with increased cortisol levels and were most prominent in social groups containing multiple females. The influence of multiple females on male seasonality occurred despite the finding that male-female interactions were infrequent and, in fact, occurred less frequently when isosexual partners were available. Unexpectedly, affiliative social interactions between same-sex and opposite-sex partners occurred less frequently during the breeding season. As expected, behaviors associated with sex tended to increase during the breeding season. Very little agonism was observed during the course of the study and there was no evidence of interanimal competition for mates.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Modulation of catecholamine release and cortisol secretion by social interactions in the rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss.

The objective of the present study was to investigate the effect of social status on the ability of rainbow trout to secrete the stress hormones, cortisol, and catecholamines. Rainbow trout were confined in pairs for six days to permit the formation of dominance hierarchies. An in situ saline-perfused posterior cardinal vein (PCV) preparation was then used to assess cortisol secretion or release of the catecholamine hormones, adrenaline and noradrenaline, in response to the inclusion of appropriate secretagogues in the perfusate. Fish identified as subordinate on the basis of their behaviour showed a characteristic elevation of circulating plasma cortisol concentrations when compared with dominant fish. When the interrenal cells were stimulated in situ with adrenocorticotropic hormone, subordinate fish displayed a significantly lower rate of cortisol secretion than dominant fish. However, social status had no significant effect on either adrenaline or noradrenaline secretion rates upon stimulation of the chromaffin cells in situ with acetylcholine. These results suggest that the chronic elevation of plasma cortisol associated with subordinate social status in rainbow trout reduces the sensitivity of the cortisol-secreting interrenal cells, presumably through negative feedback mechanisms.

Acetylcholine↗
PubMed2004

The relationship between dominance rank and spatial ability among male meadow voles (Microtus pennsylvanicus).

Males of many mammalian species exhibit contest competition and scramble competition for mates, but the relationship between these 2 forms of competition remains poorly understood. The authors measured dominance rank and spatial ability as traits likely to be selected by contest and scramble competition, respectively, among male meadow voles (Microtus pennsylvanicus). The spatial ability of males was assessed using water maze tests, and dominance rank was determined using paired trials in a neutral arena. Dominant males had better spatial-learning ability and tended to have quicker learning speed but did not have better spatial memory than less aggressive subordinates. Therefore, the authors found no evidence that contest and scramble competition have favored alternative reproductive phenotypes among male meadow voles.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Perceptions of sexual coercion in heterosexual dating relationships: the role of aggressor gender and tactics.

A large body of research has found a concerning prevalence rate of sexual coercion in heterosexual college student dating relationships; however, little research has examined how college students perceive and interpret these behaviors. In the current study we examined the impact of initiator gender and sexually coercive strategy (verbal pressure, purposeful intoxication, physical force, or control/mutual consent) on perceptions of the aggressor, victim, behavior, and relationship quality. Results indicated that men who coerce are viewed as aggressive; women who coerce are viewed as promiscuous. Targets of sexual coercion are not perceived as experiencing high levels of victimization following the incident. These findings suggest that college students do not perceive sexually coercive behaviors to be highly problematic. The results are discussed in terms of gender roles and practical implications for college student relationships.

Aggression↗
PubMed2000

Androgen levels and female social dominance in Lemur catta.

Morphological and behavioural traits which improve agonistic power are subject to intrasexual selection and, at the proximate level, are influenced by circulating androgens. Because intrasexual selection in mammals is more intense among males, they typically dominate females. Female social dominance is therefore unexpected and, indeed, rare. Ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta) are sexually monomorphic primates in which all adult females dominate all males. The goal of our study was to test the prediction that female dominance in this species is associated with high androgen levels. Using two captive groups, we collected data on agonistic behaviour and non-invasively assessed their androgen concentrations in faeces and saliva by enzyme immunoassay. We found that adult female L. catta do not have higher androgen levels than males. However, during the mating season there was a twofold increase in both the androgen levels and conflict rates among females. This seasonal increase in their androgen levels was probably not due to a general increase in ovarian hormone production because those females showing the strongest signs of follicular development tended to have low androgen concentrations. At the individual level neither the individual aggression rates nor the proportion of same-sexed individuals dominated were correlated with their androgen levels. We conclude that female dominance in ring-tailed lemurs is neither based on physical superiority nor on high androgen levels and that it is equally important to study male subordination and prenatal brain priming effects for a complete understanding of this phenomenon.

Aggression↗
PubMed2004

Predation risk is an ecological constraint for helper dispersal in a cooperatively breeding cichlid.

Environmental conditions are thought to be responsible for the extent and benefits of cooperative breeding in many animal societies, but experimental tests are scarce. We manipulated predator pressure in the cooperatively breeding cichlid Neolamprologus pulcher in Lake Tanganyika, where predators have been suggested to influence helper and breeder survival, helper dispersal and group reproductive success. We varied the type and intensity of predation by releasing medium, large, or no predators inside large underwater cages enclosing two or three group territories. Helper and breeder survival, helper dispersal and group reproductive success decreased from the control, to the medium- and large-predator treatments. These effects were modified by helper body size and the number of adults protecting the group from predators, supporting the 'group augmentation hypothesis'. Predators forced helpers to stay closer to, and spend more time inside, protective shelters. The results demonstrate the importance of predators for group living in this species, and support the 'ecological constraints hypothesis' of cooperative breeding, in the sense that subordinates stay at home rather than leave and breed independently under the risk of predation.

Animals↗
PubMed1991

Effects of the benzodiazepine receptor inverse agonist, DMCM, on the behaviour of mice: an ethopharmacological study.

Ethopharmacological procedures and a two-compartment black and white test box were used to examine behavioural effects produced by the benzodiazepine receptor inverse agonist, methyl-6,7-dimethoxy-4-ethyl-beta-carboline-3-carboxylate (DMCM), when given by intraperitoneal injection (0.4 and 1.0 mg/kg) to pair-housed adult CD1 male mice. Control mice received injections of the solvent. Behaviour in the light-dark box was examined at 30 min after the injection and behaviour during encounters with an untreated group-housed male, in a neutral cage, was then assessed by ethological procedures. In dominant mice, aggressive behaviour was significantly reduced and the ratio of flight, relative to aggression received, was significantly increased by DMCM at 0.4 mg/kg. At 1 mg/kg but not 0.4 mg/kg, DMCM decreased time spent by dominant mice in the light compartment of the test box. In both dominant and subordinate mice, flight was increased by DMCM at 1 mg/kg to a level close to statistical significance. Treatment with DMCM had no other detectable effect on the behaviour of subordinate animals. It is suggested that anxiogenic activity of this compound might induce a shift of agonistic behaviour from aggression to "fear-induced flight".

Aggression↗
PubMed1990

What does the cook and medley hostility scale measure? Affect, behavior, and attributions in the marital context.

The Cook and Medley (1954) Hostility (Ho) scale has been used in several important studies evaluating potential health consequences of hostility. A relative lack of compelling information about the construct validity of the Ho scale, however, has raised concerns about the appropriate interpretation of previous research. In this study, 60 married couples discussed a low conflict topic, a high conflict topic, and then a second low conflict topic. High Ho men responded to the high conflict topic with significant increases in self-reported anger and anxiety and overt hostile behavior, but low Ho men did not. Furthermore, compared to low Ho men, high Ho men blamed their wives more for their usual disagreements on the high conflict topic and saw their disagreement-engendering behavior as more intentional. Among women, Ho scores were weakly related only to overt hostile behavior. Finally, couples consisting of two low Ho persons displayed a uniquely agreeable interactional style.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[The spatial relationships and social structure of gerbils in the genus Meriones (Gerbillinae, Rodentia)].

Comparative analysis of spatial relations of 4 gerbil species (M. tamariscinus M. meridianus, M. libycus, M. unguiculatus) shows differences in the system of space use between species and within a species--between individuals of different sex. During reproduction period females are inclined to isolation, small overlap of home ranges and high degree of individualisation. Males occupy large home ranges overlapping with territories of several reproductive females. The territories occupied by the males of midday and tamarisk gerbils do not have clear boundaries and the level of their individualization is quite low. The males of Mongolian gerbil (M. unguiculatus) occupy well defined territories with high level of individualization. Spatial relations of M. libycus males are intermediate. The relationships of the males of three investigated species (M. meridianus, M. libycus, M. tamariscinus) being characterised by the high degree of asymmetry of pair connections, are organised according to the principle of agonistic dominance. Relationships between individuals of different family groups of Mongolian gerbils are based on the locus-dependent dominance, while within one family group-on principle of hierarchical subordination. The meaning of specific peculiarities in use of space and dominance relations are discussed in terms of reproductive strategies.

Aging↗
PubMed1990

The place of the clock in pediatric advice: rationales, cultural themes, and impediments to breastfeeding.

This analysis treats the U.S. medical literature as evidence concerning the formal system of knowledge in allopathic medicine. An examination of pediatric advice on breastfeeding reveals the logic of medical reasoning, the use of scientific rationales, and the intrusion of specific cultural themes. The corpus of data includes works of 18 authors published in 36 volumes from 1897 to 1987, 27 volumes being editions of two major pediatric textbooks. All sources advocate breastfeeding but the detailed advice on how to carry out the process actually tends to undermine it. Moreover, the clock has provided the main frame of reference, creating regimentation reminiscent of factory work, segmenting breastfeeding into a series of steps, and emphasizing efficiency in time and motion. Feeding schedules were advocated in former decades as a matter of discipline for the infant, but nowadays they are viewed as biologically innate to normal infants and to breast milk production. The literature manifests responses over the century to behavioral, biochemical and physiological studies; however, except possibly for one textbook, no thorough rethinking has occurred. Sources of the 1980s continue to focus on the tempo of feeding as a major concern. Cultural themes besides the factory model of breastfeeding include the extension of professional advice to family matters, the subordination of lay women to professional expertise, mistrust of women's bodily signals including the let-down reflex in determining the timing of feedings, mistrust of signals from infants as well, and a professional ideal of flexible advice coupled with rigid limits concerning schedules. The literature interweaves the cultural themes with rationales based on physiological studies in support of specific regimens in breastfeeding, and the relegation of control in breastfeeding to medical experts denies the validity of mutual bodily and emotional responses within the mother-infant dyad. Pediatric authorities thus participate in the selection of cultural themes emphasized in motherhood. Although the pediatric literature is not the only influence on physicians and women, it reinforces pressures on women regarding their orientations toward their infants and hence, may be expected to shape our views of infancy, motherhood, and humanity in general. The break from the bindings of schedules has been proclaimed at various points during the century; however, the clock ironically remains the major reference point in most pediatric sources today.

Adult↗