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PubMed1987

Is moderate drinking during pregnancy associated with an increased risk for malformations?

The relationship between heavy drinking during pregnancy and congenital malformations is well known; however, whether moderate or light drinking is teratogenic is controversial. This prospective birth defects study collected information from 32,870 women about alcohol consumption during the first trimester of pregnancy. Total malformation rates were not significantly higher among offspring of women who had an average of less than one drink per day (77.3/1,000) or one to two drinks per day (83.2/1,000) than among nondrinkers (78.1/1,000). An increased risk as small as 12% in the group averaging less than one drink per day and 45% in those averaging one to two drinks per day would most likely have been detected if it were present. Likewise, major malformations were not increased in these drinking groups. Examining malformations by organ system and individual defect revealed that sex organ malformations and all genitourinary malformations increased significantly (P less than .05) with increasing alcohol consumption. These findings suggest that alcohol, at the levels usually consumed during pregnancy, is not a significant cause of malformations. Nonetheless, the possibility that there are some malformations for which no safe drinking level exists requires additional investigation.

Abnormalities, Drug-Induced↗
PubMed1984

Moderate drinking during pregnancy and foetal outcome.

Although there are many reports of the adverse effects of alcohol on the infant in ancient literature the first modern report was by Sullivan, Physician to Liverpool gaol. He showed an increased incidence of growth retardation and stillbirth in children of alcoholic mothers using their non-drinking relatives as a control. The literature on moderate drinking is contradictory and suffers from poor control of factors known to confound pregnancy outcome such as social class, parity and smoking habit. The other major problem in assessing the effect of moderate drinking is the difficulty in obtaining accurate drinking histories and the many and varied ways in which these are taken. All histories however, should be regarded as an underestimate. Moderate drinking (less than 40 g alcohol/day before and during pregnancy) has been related to growth retardation, a higher incidence of congenital abnormality, poorer behavioural and neurological scores in the newborn. Recent American surveys have shown an increased relative risk of mid-trimester abortion in women who drink more than three times a week in early pregnancy. Recent work in this country has demonstrated a trend toward smaller head circumference and reduced weight in the babies born to mothers consuming more than 100 g alcohol a week in very early pregnancy. The interaction between smoking and drinking is particularly important for this effect. Using logistic regression analysis the effect of drinking and smoking on birth weight can be clearly seen together with the effect of social class. For any impact to be made on this problem educational intervention is necessary before pregnancy is planned, and thus should be directed at pre-conception clinics, family planning clinics and the general practitioner's surgery.

Alcohol Drinking↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Soft drink consumption patterns in a Mexican population].

To evaluate soft drink consumption patterns in the Mexican population, the authors conducted a survey among people over 10 years of age in Mexico City (september-october 1993). Also, pH levels of commonly available beverages were measured using standard laboratory techniques. Results indicated that each one of the 33 soft drink brands and 15 brands of juices and beverages available, had markedly acidic pH values (between 2.46 and 3.96). Out of the 2,008 respondents (55.3% male, 44.7% female; response rate, 90.1%), 1,657 (82.5%) admitted drinking soft drinks daily, while 351 (17.5%) said they did not drink this type of beverages. Even though high consumption was frequent in all age groups, self-reported consumption was partially associated to age, being higher in the younger groups. The mean number of soft drinks ingested per day was reported to be 1.7, SD 1.3, and 9.3 per week SD 9.9. Self-reported consumption appeared to be independent of schooling level. Even though the largest proportion of non-consumers was found in the group that considered soft drinks to be a very important contributing factor to caries development, most interviewees agreed that soft drinks consumption was an important cariogenic factor. This attributed role was more prominent among interviewees with a higher level of schooling.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1994

Screening for hazardous drinking. Using the CAGE and measures of alcohol consumption in family practice.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the drinking practices of a family practice population, to examine the CAGE and questions about drinking as a method of screening for hazardous alcohol use, and to examine the relationship between alcohol consumption and CAGE items, particularly in a subgroup of hazardous drinkers. DESIGN: Random survey of patients representative of a clinic population. SETTING: Family practice clinic. PATIENTS: Of 1420 patients approached while waiting to see a family physician for medical reasons, 1376 agreed to participate; 1334 turned in usable questionnaires. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Drinking measures and CAGE items; CAGE questions and levels of alcohol use were used to determine current drinking practices. A subgroup of hazardous drinkers was examined in greater detail. RESULTS: Forty percent of male patients and 11% of female patients reported at least one "hazardous" drinking (four or more drinks) day in the past month. Answering yes to CAGE items was more specific to drinking for male subjects, who also reported a greater number of maximum drinks with a CAGE score of 2 or more. CONCLUSIONS: This brief questionnaire was a feasible tool for identifying family practice patients who could be at risk for developing alcohol problems. All patients could be invited to complete the questionnaire while waiting for their appointments.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1997

[Drinking and driving].

A worrisome connection between driving and drinking was found in 166 people randomly surveyed in public places in Beer Sheba. 80% of the study population stated that they drink alcoholic beverages. Of these, 45% reported drinking at least once a week, and 21% drank 3 glasses/cans at each drinking bout. We noted a trend among those who drank frequently to drink greater amounts. Of the sample, 110 interviewees stated that they had a driver's license and that they drank alcoholic drinks. 39% reported driving after a number of alcoholic drinks, and 23% of them did so invariably or frequently. 5% drank while driving. The drinkers exhibited a high-risk behavioral pattern, remaining in the car with friends (53%) or relatives (16%) also under the influence of alcohol. Those who are aware of the influence of alcohol on their driving skills and the danger of being involved in car accidents, moderate their consumption of alcohol. The results of the study confirm our hypothesis that there is an upswing in the phenomenon of high-risk driving connected with drinking alcoholic beverages.

Alcohol Drinking↗
PubMed1998

Dopamine release during ethanol drinking in AA rats.

The dopamine overflow in the nucleus accumbens of rats from the high alcohol drinking AA line was measured by microdialysis before, during, and after one-half hour sessions of cued drinking of ethanol flavored with saccharin and peppermint or, as a control, saccharin-peppermint drinking. The animals had had extensive previous experience with ethanol drinking. Self-administration of the ethanol solution did not raise the dopamine level substantially: there was a small (17%) but significant increase only during the first 10 min after the onset of drinking. Giving the rats a cue for ethanol, which was part of their daily routine drinking regime, did not raise the dopamine level before ethanol was presented to the rats (i.e., during "anticipation"). The results are consistent with our previous studies showing a lack of a large ethanol-induced dopamine response in rats with previous experience of drinking ethanol and with the idea that although dopamine may play some role in alcohol drinking, it is not the central substrate producing the reinforcement from ethanol in AA rats.

Alcohol Drinking↗
PubMed1995

Screening for excessive alcohol drinking. Comparative value of carbohydrate-deficient transferrin, gamma-glutamyltransferase, and mean corpuscular volume.

BACKGROUND: Screening medical patients for excessive alcohol drinking is important because minimal intervention by physicians is effective in reducing excessive consumption. Screening tests, such as biologic markers of alcohol consumption, should therefore be investigated to assess their validity to detect alcohol drinking. METHOD: Levels of carbohydrate-deficient transferrin (CDT), gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT), and mean corpuscular volume (MCV) were determined in 1202 consecutive patients (20 to 75 years old) seen at the medical emergency ward (n = 552) and the primary care center (n = 650) of a city and teaching hospital. Each eligible patient was administered a CAGE questionnaire (an acronym for questions regarding cutting down on drinking, annoyance at others' concern about drinking, feeling guilty about drinking, and using alcohol as an eye-opener in the morning), and for each CAGE-positive patient (score > or = 2) as well as for a random sex-matched sample of CAGE-negative patients, standardized data about the recent level of alcohol drinking, morbidities, drug therapy, and smoking were recorded. The operating characteristics of CDT, GGT, and MCV were determined according to alcohol consumption and the CAGE test. Sensitivities, specificities, and receiver operating characteristic curves were computed to compare the tests at different cutoff values. RESULTS: Levels of CDT were elevated in 21% of men and 7% of women. According to recent alcohol consumption in men (> 60 g/d), the respective sensitivity and specificity of the tests were 0.58 and 0.82 for CDT, 0.69 and 0.65 for GGT, and 0.27 and 0.91 for MCV. Overall, receiver operating characteristic curves demonstrated similar performance of the three tests for screening of excessive alcohol drinking or alcohol abuse. However, in young men (< 40 years of age) and in smokers, CDT was superior to GGT or MCV. CONCLUSIONS: The study suggests that CDT determination may be a useful test for screening programs of excessive alcohol drinking in young male medical patients.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Influence of soft drinks on the thickness and morphology of in situ acquired pellicle layer on enamel.

Diet-induced demineralization is a key factor in tooth enamel loss, with soft drinks being a significant aetiological agent. In the oral environment, the acquired pellicle layer might modify the demineralization potential of drinks. The objectives of this exploratory in situ study were to determine the influence of soft drinks, volunteers, and exposure times on the thickness and morphology of pellicle layers using an atomic force microscope (AFM). Polished uninterrupted third molars were partly taped and exposed to the oral environment for periods of 2 and 5 days, respectively. Each day 1L of either mineral water, a "toothkind" blackcurrant drink, a "prototype" blackcurrant drink, or orange juice was consumed in this four-way crossover, single-center study. Subsequently the tape was removed and the surfaces imaged with an AFM before and after chemical cleaning. The pellicle layer morphology and thickness were investigated. The maximum pellicle layer thickness was observed after the consumption of the prototype blackcurrant drink, followed by the toothkind blackcurrant drink, orange juice, and water on days 2 and 5, respectively. A three-way ANOVA at the 95% confidence level showed statistically significant differences between the pellicle layer thicknesses, factors being drinks (p=0.0046), exposure time (p=0.0009), and volunteers (p=0.0244). Depending on the volunteer either a uniform or a patchy pellicle layer was observed. This demonstrates that AFM is a useful tool in obtaining simultaneously qualitative and quantitative data of in situ acquired pellicle layers.

Beverages↗
PubMed1993

Modeling blood/plasma concentrations in dosed feed and dosed drinking water toxicology studies.

A computer model for predicting blood/plasma concentrations of test chemicals in dosed feed and dosed drinking water toxicology studies was developed. The model was constructed based on linear theory. The animal's feeding and drinking habits and the linear disposition kinetics of the test chemical obtained after a bolus gavage dose were built into the model. Blood/plasma concentrations of oxazepam and pentachlorophenol in dosed feed and dosed drinking water studies were predicted and compared with the experimentally determined data. The model proved highly reliable in predicting the blood/plasma concentrations of test chemical in dosed feed and dosed drinking water studies. The results suggest that if the kinetics of test chemicals fit a one-compartment model then bioaccumulation of the test chemical will occur in dosed feed or in dosed drinking water studies when absorption half-lives are less than 1.38 hr and elimination half-lives are longer than 5 hr. The extent of accumulation is mainly dependent on the elimination half-lives. For chemicals with absorption half-lives less than 1.38 hr and elimination half-lives less than 2 hr, the extent of bioaccumulation will be minimal. Blood/plasma concentrations of test chemicals in rats and mice will fluctuate daily and a quasi-steady state will be achieved after ad libitum exposure to dosed feed or dosed drinking water for approximately 4 days. If a daily 12-hr light cycle is used with the light cycle starting at 7:00 AM, the expected peak and trough blood concentrations in dosed feed studies will occur approximately in the early morning (5:00 AM) and in the late afternoon (4:00 PM), respectively. Similar results were obtained for dosed drinking water studies. The model should be applicable to dosed feed and dosed drinking water studies using other species.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Toxicological guidelines for monocyclic nitro-, amino- and aminonitroaromatics, nitramines, and nitrate esters in drinking water.

In order to secure a safe drinking water supply, the setting of tolerable/acceptable ceilings of drinking water hygiene is required with regard to xenobiotics resulting from several anthropogenic impacts. This is done in practice by using drinking water guidelines or standards as quantitative objectives. The list of the new EU Directive or the German drinking-water standards is limited to those parameters that have the highest relevance for drinking water quality; nitro compounds (NCs) are not regulated. Because other substances contained in water can also represent a hazard for human health, the German Drinking Water Ordinance clarifies that specific actions must be implemented if compounds other than those regulated appear at concentrations that may be a cause for concern regarding human health. NCs serve as intermediates for dyes, pharmaceuticals, and synthetic materials; they themselves are used as solvents, explosives, and pesticides. During their commercial production or from their use, they may be released to the environment and lead to a contamination of aquatic systems and thus also of drinking water resources. In practice, therefore, a need for assessment is frequently given for relevant NCs. For 19 nitro-, amino-, and aminonitroaromatics, nitramines, and nitrate esters health-based drinking water guide values have been derived. For toxicological evaluation and derivation of guideline values for the NCs of interest, the tolerable daily intake approach was used for chemicals exhibiting a threshold for toxic effects. This was done by using established tolerable body doses for humans based on an identified no-observed-adverse-effect level/low-observed-effect-level for the most sensitive indicator for toxicity. In the case of nonthreshold chemical substances, suitable estimates of excess lifetime cancer risk have been applied.

Databases, Factual↗
PubMed2001

The influence of a taurine containing drink on cardiac parameters before and after exercise measured by echocardiography.

To determine the effect of the taurine containing drink "Red Bull" on cardiac parameters thirteen endurance trained subjects performed an exhaustive bout of endurance exercise at three different times. Prior to the exercise the original "Red Bull" drink, a similar drink without taurine, containing caffeine, and a "placebo" drink without caffeine and without taurine were ingested by the subjects in a double-blind cross-over design. Echocardiographic examinations were performed before the drinks, 40 minutes after the drinks prior to the exercise and in the regeneration period after exercise. Stroke volume was significantly influenced only in the "Red Bull group" (80,4+/-21,4 ml before drink vs. 97,5+/-26,2 ml in the regeneration period), mainly due to a reduced endsystolic diameter and volume. Furthermore in this group the peak late diastolic inflow (V(A)) in the regeneration period was significantly higher compared with the pre-exercise levels. This observation was also made in the caffeine group but without any consequences on ventricular function. The results of the present study show an influence of the original caffeine and taurine containing drink (Red Bull) on parameters of the cardiac contractility.

Adult↗
PubMed1992

The immobilization of all spermatozoa in vitro by bitter lemon drink and the effect of alkaline pH.

UNLABELLED: This study investigated the effects of increase in temperature and in pH of Coca-Cola, Afri-Cola, Pepsi-Cola and Krest bitter lemon drinks ("soft drinks") produced in Nigeria on the in vitro motility of spermatozoa. Semen was collected from 7 men, average age 28 years, of proven fertility, after 5 days' abstinence from sexual intercourse. The temperature and pH of the drinks were adjusted from 22 degrees C (room) to 37 degrees C, and pH 2.4 (acid) to 7.5 (alkaline), respectively. The mean % motility of spermatozoa in the adjusted and in the unadjusted drinks was compared for significant differences at the 1% level using the student's t-test. The results showed no significant differences in mean % motility in the drinks at 22 degrees C and at 37 degrees C. The mean % motility in all the drinks, except Coca-Cola, was significantly greater at alkaline than at acid pH; for Coca-Cola, motility was significantly greater at acid than alkaline pH. Of the drinks, Krest bitter lemon (unadjusted) immobilized all spermatozoa within 1 minute of addition. CONCLUSION: i) alkalinity decreases the spermicidal action of all drinks except Coca-Cola, and ii) Krest bitter lemon may achieve very high efficacy if used as post-coital douche, especially in the impoverished, densely populated Third World.

Adult↗
PubMed2007

Frequency of heavy episodic drinking among nonfatal injury patients attending an emergency room.

This study investigated the relationship between frequency of heavy episodic drinking and nonfatal injury in four categories: environment, external cause, diagnosis, and activity at the time of injury. Data were collected over 18 months at the emergency room facility of a Swedish hospital. Injury patients aged 18-70 years answered an alcohol screening questionnaire. Heavy episodic drinking was measured as drinking six glasses (72 g alcohol) or more per occasion, for both males and females. A total of 2211 patients were enrolled in the study (79.5% completion rate). Demographic and drinking characteristics for the patients were compared to those of the general population, data for which were derived from a population-based survey. The proportion of people who reported heavy episodic drinking once a month or more was nearly twice as large among the injury patients as in the general population. However, age and sex outweighed heavy episodic drinking as risk factors for most injury types. There were 11 significant associations between frequency of heavy episodic drinking and injury types in the four injury categories, yet no linear trends of increased likelihood of injury with increased frequency of heavy episodic drinking could be discerned.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

A glucose-caffeine 'energy drink' ameliorates subjective and performance deficits during prolonged cognitive demand.

Effects of a combination of caffeine and glucose were assessed in two double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over studies during extended performance of cognitively demanding tasks. In the first study, 30 participants received two drinks containing carbohydrate and caffeine (68 g/38 mg; 68 g/46 mg, respectively) and a placebo drink, in counter-balanced order, on separate days. In the second study 26 participants received a drink containing 60 g of carbohydrate and 33 mg of caffeine and a placebo drink. In both studies, participants completed a 10-min battery of tasks comprising 2-min versions of Serial 3s and Serial 7s subtraction tasks and a 5-min version of the Rapid Visual Information Processing task (RVIP), plus a rating of 'mental fatigue', once before the drink and six times in succession commencing 10 min after its consumption. In comparison to placebo, all three active drinks improved the accuracy of RVIP performance and both the drink with the higher level of caffeine in first study and the active drink in the second study resulted in lower ratings of mental fatigue. These results indicate that a combination of caffeine and glucose can ameliorate deficits in cognitive performance and subjective fatigue during extended periods of cognitive demand.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

P3 components and adolescent binge drinking in Southwest California Indians.

In adolescence, consuming a large number of drinks over a short interval of time (e.g. binging) is not an uncommon occurrence. Since adolescence is an important neurodevelopmental period, the effect of binge drinking on brain and behavior has become a significant health concern. The present study evaluated event-related potentials (ERPs) in young adult Southwest California Indians who had a history of binge drinking during their adolescence. One hundred twenty five participants who were currently 18-25 yrs of age who were free of Axis I psychiatric diagnoses were categorized as: 1) reporting no binge drinking during adolescence (>5 drinks per occasion before age 18) or drug dependence diagnoses 2) reporting binge drinking during adolescence with no drug dependence diagnoses 3) reporting binge drinking during adolescence and drug dependence diagnoses. ERPs were collected using a facial discrimination task. Adolescent alcohol and drug exposure was found to be associated with decreases in the latency of an early P3 component (P350). Decreases in a later component amplitude (P450) were also found in young adults exposed to alcohol, and those exposed to alcohol and drugs. However, that finding appears to be a combined result of predisposing factors such as family history of alcoholism and presence of other externalizing diagnoses. Taken together these preliminary studies suggests that adolescent binge drinking may result in a decreases in P3 component latencies and amplitudes perhaps reflecting a loss or delay in the development of inhibitory brain systems.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1981

German studies on health effects of inorganic drinking water constituents.

The influence of drinking water quality on mortality and morbidity of various diseases has been studied for more than 20 years. From these diseases, those of the cardiovascular system have been playing a special role. Better and more specified information on the differences in the composition of drinking water may essentially contribute to a solution of the problem of association between water quality and the incidence of diseases. In more than 600 water supply areas in the Federal Republic of Germany the composition of the drinking water has been analyzed. From these data, areas of different water quality are to be selected for additional investigations of the problem of health relevance of drinking water quality. So far, the following constituents of drinking water have been measured: Na, Ca, Mg, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, Zn, SO4, PO4, NO3, NO2, Cl, F, I, etc. The methods of analysis used were atomic absorption spectrometry, plasma emission spectrometry, and ion chromatography. Additionally, more than 19 000 data on drinking water in accordance with standard analytic procedures under the Drinking Water Regulations are available in a comprehensive data bank (BIBIDAT). There have been studies establishing associations between water hardness and cardiovascular diseases but also studies which do not confirm this association or even present converse results. Also water constituents like magnesium, cadmium, etc. have been associated with cardiovascular diseases. Some investigations have shown correlations between e.g. the concentration of fluoride in drinking water and caries or iodide and goitre.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

The pH and titratable acidity of a range of diluting drinks and their potential effect on dental erosion.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate, in vitro, the potential dental effects of diluting juices by measuring their acidity levels and to examine the effect dilution has on the potential erosive properties of the drinks. METHODS: Four commonly available diluting drinks were assessed for both pH and titratable acidity at a variety of dilutions, reflecting the range of concentrations over which such drinks may be consumed. Predetermined dilutions of citric acid and hydrochloric acid, with similar pH values to those of the drinks, were used as positive control acidic solutions. The pH measurements throughout the study were made using a pH electrode connected to an Orion EA940 IonAnalyser. RESULTS: All four drinks demonstrated a high degree of resistance to a rise in pH, indicating high intrinsic buffering capacity. The measured pH changed very little with increasing dilution ratio when compared to the citric and hydrochloric acid controls, even when considered extremely dilute. In contrast, the titratable acidity of each of the drinks reduced proportionally with increasing dilution, thereby reducing considerably its erosive potential. CONCLUSIONS: While dilution had very little effect on the measured pH values, the titratable acidity reduced as the drink became more dilute. Since there appears to be a direct relationship between dilution and titratable acidity, the erosive potential of diluting juices may be reduced substantially by the addition of water. It remains unlikely, however, that the drinks would ever be consumed at a 'safe' level of dilution due to diminished taste and colour.

Beverages↗
PubMed1996

Late-life problem drinking: personal and environmental risk factors for 4-year functioning outcomes and treatment seeking.

Recent research emphasizes the importance of identifying older problem drinkers. However, very little is known about the longitudinal course and predictors of late-life problem drinking. This prospective study of late-life problem drinkers (N = 581) focused on predictors of alcohol consumption, drinking problems, depression, and treatment seeking over a 4-year interval. Heavier baseline alcohol use and being male independently predicted more alcohol consumption 4 years later; more baseline drinking problems and early-onset status independently predicted more drinking problems at follow-up. Independent of other factors, more initial depressive symptoms and chronic health stressors portended more depressive symptoms at follow-up. Individuals who initially sought more treatment, and who had more chronic health and spouse stressors at baseline, were more likely to seek help 4 years later. Heavier reliance on avoidance coping strategies heightened the risk that stressors and friends' approval of drinking would lead to more drinking problems at follow-up. However, for individuals who had more drinking problems at baseline, such environmental risk factors as negative health events and friend stressors predicted fewer subsequent drinking problems.

Adaptation, Psychological↗