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PubMed1978

[Effect of blockers of serotonin and noradrenaline synthesis on learning with emotionally different reinforcement in rats].

The effect of inhibitor of serotonin and norepinephrine synthesis in the brain on learning was investigated in rats with emotionally different reinforcement. Parachlorphenylalanine (320 mg/kg) was shown to inhibit learning with food reinforcement, but facilitated learning with pain reinforcement. Disulfiram (100 mg/kg) inhibited learning with pain reinforcement considerably, but failed to influence learning with food reinforcement. Alpha-methyl-m-thyrosine inhibited both forms of learning. These new facts are in line with our previous data on mediating role of the brain monoaminergic systems between emotions and memory.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Effects of prefrontal ablations on the reaction of the active choice of feeder under different probability and value of the reinforcement on dog].

The role of the prefrontal cortex was investigated on the reaction of the active choice of the two feeders under changes value and probability reinforcement. The experiments were performed on 2 dogs with prefrontal ablation (g. proreus). Before the lesions the dogs were taught to receive food in two different feeders to conditioned stimuli with equally probable alimentary reinforcement. After ablation in the inter-trial intervals the dogs were running from the one feeder to another. In the answer to conditioned stimuli for many times the dogs choose the same feeder. The disturbance of the behavior after some times completely restored. In the experiments with competition of probability events and values of reinforcement the dogs chose the feeder with low-probability but better quality of reinforcement. In the experiments with equal value but different probability the intact dogs chose the feeder with higher probability. In our experiments the dogs with prefrontal lesions chose the each feeder equiprobably. Thus in condition of free behavior one of different functions of the prefrontal cortex is the reactions choose with more probability of reinforcement.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Potential sources of reinforcement and punishment in a drug-free treatment clinic: client and staff perceptions.

Contingency management interventions are quite successful at initiating abstinence from drugs of abuse. However, these approaches to drug abuse treatment are often criticized because of their perceived cost. One way to reduce the cost of contingency management interventions would be to use nonmonetary sources of reinforcement or punishment. A number of reports have discussed the availability of potential sources of reinforcement in opiate replacement clinics. This report describes the availability of potential sources of reinforcement and punishment available in drug-free treatment programs. Both clients and clinic staff rated a number of items in terms of their potential reinforcing and punishing efficacy. Results suggest that there are several sources of reinforcement and punishment available in drug-free clinics, which could be used in contingency management programs. The results also suggest that the clinic staff perceives potential sources of punishment as more aversive than do the clients.

Attitude of Health Personnel↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[The choice of reinforcement quality depending on the delay time of the instrumental reaction in cats].

In experiments on seven cats instrumental delayed reflexes with different quality reinforcement were elaborated by method of "active choice", where the time of delay of the motor reaction served as a signal of quality of the reinforcement. Five cats used a strategy with long delay high-quality reinforcement (meat), and two cats preferred short delay and low-quality reinforcement (bread-meat mixture). In special experiments with the change of alimentary motivation (24-hour alimentary deprivation and saturation of animals) it was established that the level of alimentary motivation within the studied limits did not change the strategy of behaviour preferred by the given animal. Individually varying ability to choice of reaction determining more valuable reinforcement it is possible to consider as an experimental analogue of the mechanisms of will. The question is discussed about the role of typological properties of cats in choice of behaviour strategy.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

[Is "the resistance to negative reinforcement" a feature of alcohol dependence syndrome?].

In 1979, "Alcoholism Diagnosis Committee, the Ministry of Health and Welfare" established the diagnostic criteria for alcohol dependence syndrome, which included "the resistance to negative reinforcement". The author raises a question about this criterion which indicates the condition that "an individual continues to drink despite alcohol-related physical diseases, rejection by his/her family or economic poverty and drinking-related criminal problem." The author defines this condition not as "resistance to negative reinforcement" but as "resistance to punishment." Furthermore, the author can not find the data supporting that "the resistance to negative reinforcement" in the correct sense exists in the individuals with alcohol dependence syndrome. In a theoretical sense, an opposite idea seems to exist. There is an observed fact that can be regarded as a phenomenon that explains the involvement of "negative reinforcement" in enhancement of psychological dependence as in the case of the secondary development of psychological dependence. Consequently, the author would have to say that defining "the resistance to negative reinforcement" as one of common features of alcohol dependence syndrome or one of diagnostic criteria for alcohol dependence syndrome is inappropriate.

Alcohol-Related Disorders↗
PubMed1986

Neurochemical substrates for opiate reinforcement.

The studies reported herein summarize our work to date aimed at determining the neurochemical substrates for the reinforcing properties of opiates. Rats were trained to self-administer heroin intravenously in daily 3-hour sessions, and pharmacological blockade and neurotoxin-induced lesions were used to define the neurochemical substrates for this reinforcing action. Low-dose DA receptor blockade failed to alter heroin self-administration but significantly increased cocaine self-administration, presumably reflecting a decrease in the reinforcing effectiveness of cocaine. Destruction of presynaptic DA terminals within the N.Acc. produced extinction of cocaine, but not heroin, self-administration. Opiate receptor blockade with systemic naloxone increased heroin, but not cocaine, self-administration. Methylnaloxonium injections into the N.Acc. were effective in increasing heroin self-administration at doses one-eighth those observed for intracerebroventricular injections. Reinforcement has been explored using a place-preference procedure and a self-administration drug-substitution paradigm. Mu/delta agonists such as B-END readily produce a naloxone-reversible place preference. Fentanyl derivatives also produce place preference and substitute for heroin during self-administration. The kappa agonist U50-488 produces place aversion, not place preference, and does not readily substitute for heroin. Altogether, these results suggest that mu/delta receptor subtypes in the region of the N.Acc. may be an important neurochemical substrate for opiate reinforcement.

Animals↗
PubMed1977

[Characteristics of rat training on emotionally varied reinforcement under conditions of an oriented change in the level of brain serotonin and noradrenaline].

The effect of serotonin and noadrenaline precursors on the training of the animals on emotionally different reinforcement was studied. 5-OTP (10 mg/kg) facilitated the training of rats on the food reinforcement, but aggravated it on the pain reinforcement. D, L-DOPA (20 mg/kg) facilitated the training on the food reinforcement. The influence of precursors on the peculiarity of the serotonin and noradrenaline distribution in the brain structures of trained animals was also determined by the biological significance of the reinforcement used in the training.

5-Hydroxytryptophan↗
PubMed1988

Behavioral studies of the reinforcing properties of cocaine.

In this chapter, the behavioral characteristics of cocaine self-administration were described. Cocaine is a powerful positive reinforcer, and its reinforcing properties have been demonstrated in every species tested, across an enormous range of conditions in experimental studies with animals. To compare the reinforcing efficacy of cocaine with that of other drugs, to determine how these effects might change under different environmental conditions, and, in the present context, to determine their underlying molecular mechanisms require that its reinforcing properties be assessed using indices that are not influenced by the multitude of other pharmacological effects that are produced by cocaine. Many procedures rely on rate of responding or levels of cocaine self-administration as a measure of reinforcing properties, but these may not be adequate. The use of more sophisticated approaches that utilize nonrate measures or an assessment of the resistance of drug-maintained responding to perturbations may enable neuroscientists to design more definitive studies.

Animals↗
PubMed1986

Movement training: when trainer initiated reinforcement and self-monitoring are not enough.

Trainer initiated reinforcement and client self-monitoring have been used successfully to increase the vocational productivity of individuals with moderate and severe mental retardation. Some previous research, however, has reported cases in which reinforcement strategies had minimal influence on productivity. The current study introduced reinforcement and self-monitoring sequentially in an attempt to improve the productivity levels of five clients with moderate and severe mental retardation in an adult development center. In a subsequent alternating treatments phase, the self-monitoring was compared to self-monitoring with movement training--prompting through a task analysis of the most efficient movements to perform a task. In a final phase, the most effective treatment of the alternating treatments for each subject was replicated across sessions. Four of the five subjects responded minimally to trainer initiated reinforcement or self-monitoring but showed improvement with movement training. This increase was replicated across sessions for three of these four subjects. A fifth subject increased productivity substantially with reinforcement, maintained the increase with self-monitoring, and replicated the increase across sessions with self-monitoring alone. This fifth subject did not increase productivity with movement training.

Adult↗
PubMed1986

Reducing inappropriate behavior of mentally retarded children through interpolated reinforcement.

Effects of interpolating additional reinforcement into an existing "natural" schedule of reinforcement were examined on subsequent responding when experimenter-controlled reinforcement was withdrawn. Six mildly to moderately mentally retarded children were given from 10 to 45 minutes of interpolated reinforcement for target behavior that interfered with habilitation. When the interpolated reinforcement was discontinued, the forms of responding returned to those of initial baseline, and the rates were lower. The significantly lower rate of responding in the return-to-baseline condition suggests that such a procedure may be effectively incorporated into behavior-reduction programs.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1977

[Stabilization of operant responses during a program of variable interval reinforcement as a preliminary investigation of sensory thresholds using conditioned suppression in the cat].

Cats were trained to press a key during a variable interval schedule of reinforcement with a limited hold contingency. The main modifications of the response rate were observed when the subject missed one reinforcement or obtained more than one reinforcement during the limited hold. The existence of a zone of lesser variability in the mean response rate is shown to be linked to the occurrence of the last reinforcement. This result suggests an original methodological contingency concerning the use of conditioned suppression in psychophysics. The schedule of sensory stimulation should be established for each subject during that period of lesser variability between two reinforcements.

Animals↗
PubMed1972

Lack of instrumental conditioning with intragastric reinforcement in normal experimental procedure.

The subject of this study was to check whether it would be possible to establish the alimentary instrumental reflex with direct intragastric reinforcement in normal experimental procedure. The experiment was carried out on ten male albino rats. Seven animals which were permanently implanted with intragastric tube constituted the experimental group. The remaining three rats served as controls. On the basis of obtained results we conclude the following: (i) in normal experimental procedure of conditioning it is impossible to establish a conditioned instrumental response with intragastric reinforcements, at least when the reinforcement amount is 0.5 ml; (ii) instrumental responses with intragastric reinforcement can be obtained using the method of transfer from reflexes with oral reinforcement.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Interaction between motivational and reinforcement components of self-stimulation zones].

Interrelations between motivational and reinforcing components of self-stimulation (SS) zones were studied under stimulation by rhythmic and direct current (RC, DC) of both one and the same zone of self-stimulation and during simultaneous stimulation of two distant SS zones. It was shown that the reinforcing component of SS zones, independently from the way of its activation, has an inhibitory influence on the motivational reactions evoked by a stimulation of the same zone as well as any other SS site. Motivational component depending on the way of its activation has either an enhancing (RC) or an inhibitory (DC) effect on the reinforcing component. The methodical advantage of DC over RC is that DC allows to reveal more distinctly competitory relations between motivational and reinforcing components (in the form of inhibition of SS reactions of other brain points) and synergic relations--between the reinforcing components (in the form of enhancing SS reactions of other brain points).

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Time factor in a behavioral act with delayed food reinforcement].

Experiments on unrestrained dogs showed that the character of somato-vegetative effector integral in a behavioural act with delayed alimentary reinforcement is determined by duration of the reinforcement delay from the conditioned stimulus. The moment of reinforcement, along with basic reinforcement properties are programmed by the central nervous system. Thus time serves as a reinforcement parameter. Changes in vegetative components, in the EEG of the midbrain reticular formation, hippocampus and cerebral cortex, resulting from abrupt prolongation of the delay (dissociation of time parameters in the forecasting apparatus) point to activation of mechanisms of emotional and orienting-investigating reactions.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Importance of reinforcement to differentiation of instrumental conditioned reflex signals in rats].

Differentiation to reflexes with defensive reinforcement is elaborated in deprived rats more readily and is more pronounced than to those with drinking reinforcement. This is also confirmed in other experimental series: with a transfer to reinforcement of both positive and differentiation signals, with reversal of their significance, with a stochastic stereotype, with drawing closer the pitch of the differentiation and positive tones. In a stereotype of alternating positive reflexes with drinking reinforcement and of their differentiations, the animals' reactions are predominantly linked to the alternation of signals, while in the case of defensive reinforcement they are linked to the acoustic signals.

Animals↗
PubMed1981

Physical restraint as positive reinforcement.

The reinforcing function of physical restraint was analyzed for three retarded individuals who had a history of restraint and appeared to enjoy it. Using a preference paradigm with one participant and a reversal design with two others, we found that an arbitrary response systematically increased for each participant when followed by brief periods of restraint. No comparable increases occurred in conditions in which responses were not reinforced or were followed by stimuli designed to control for the nonrestraint components of the restraint consequence. Results were discussed in terms of three clinical issues: determining the possible role of restraint in maintaining behavior problems such as self-injury in natural settings, preventing or eliminating the reinforcing function of restraint, and using restraint reinforcement in treating behavior problems when this consequence is the only identifiable reinforcer for an individual.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

"Reinforcement" in behavior theory.

In its Pavlovian context, "reinforcement" was actually a descriptive term for the functional relation between an unconditional and a conditional stimulus. When it was adopted into operant conditioning, "reinforcement" became the central concept and the key operation, but with new qualifications, new referents, and new expectations. Some behavior theorists believed that "reinforcers" comprise a special and limited class of stimuli or events, and they speculated about what the essential "nature of reinforcement" might be. It is now known that any stimulus can serve a reinforcing function, with due recognition of such parameters as subject species characteristics, stimulus intensity, sensory modality, and schedule of application. This paper comments on these developments from the standpoint of reflex behavior theory.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Establishing benzodiazepines as oral reinforcers: midazolam and diazepam self-administration in rhesus monkeys.

Oral benzodiazepine self-administration was examined in four adult male rhesus monkeys with histories of ethanol- and pentobarbital-reinforced behavior. Drug solutions and vehicle were concurrently available for 3-hr each day under fixed-ratio (FR) reinforcement schedules. Initially, the monkeys rejected a midazolam solution (0.1 mg/ml) after direct substitution of the drug for an 8% ethanol solution. However, midazolam self-administration was subsequently established by using a fading procedure in which increasing amounts of drug (0.0125-0.2 mg/ml) were gradually added to an 8% ethanol solution, followed by gradual reduction of the ethanol concentration to zero. Midazolam was an effective reinforcer for three of four monkeys tested, i.e., responding that was maintained by the drug solution exceeded that maintained by the drug vehicle. The fourth monkey also self-administered midazolam but drug-maintained responding was not consistently greater than vehicle-maintained responding. The responding maintained by the drug was an inverted-U-shaped or bitonic function of midazolam concentration. The midazolam intake (in milligrams per kilogram) increased as a function of increases in the drug concentration. At the higher concentrations, marked sedative intoxication was observed. There was an inverse relationship between FR size (varied from FR 8 to FR 32) and the amount of drug self-administered. The three monkeys in which midazolam functioned as a reinforcer were then tested with diazepam (0.2 mg/ml), which maintained drug self-administration behavior on direct substitution for 0.2-mg/ml midazolam. Diazepam-maintained responding usually exceeded water responding as the diazepam concentration was increased to 0.8 mg/ml. These data demonstrate robust reinforcing effects of both "short-" and "long-acting" benzodiazepines delivered by the oral route.

Administration, Oral↗